SUBSURFACE DAMAGE IN GRINDING TITANIUM ALUMINIDE

Abstract

This paper reports on an experimental investigation of grinding-induced subsurface damage in gamma titanium aluminide (γ-TiAl). Grinding was carried out with resin-bond diamond wheels having the same concentration but different grit sizes, and with a vitreous-bond silicon carbide wheel using various depths of cut. The extent of the subsurface damage was determined by a bonded interface technique and optical microscopy. The grinding-induced damage beneath the ground surfaces was found to consist of plastic deformation and microcracks. The severity and depth of the subsurface damage zone increased with an increase in the abrasive grit size and the depth of cut. Microcracks were observed when grinding was performed with the silicon carbide wheel at a depth of cut of 100 and 125 μm.     

SUBSURFACE DAMAGE IN GRINDING TITANIUM ALUMINIDE

This paper reports on an experimental investigation of grinding-induced subsurface damage in gamma titanium aluminide (γ-TiAl). Grinding was carried out with resin-bond diamond wheels having the same concentration but different grit sizes, and with a vitreous-bond silicon carbide wheel using various depths of cut. The extent of the subsurface damage was determined by a bonded interface technique and optical microscopy. The grinding-induced damage beneath the ground surfaces was found to consist of plastic deformation and microcracks. The severity and depth of the subsurface damage zone increased with an increase in the abrasive grit size and the depth of cut. Microcracks were observed when grinding was performed with the silicon carbide wheel at a depth of cut of 100 and 125 μm.     

Characterization of grinding-induced cracks in ceramics

A method of determining the size distribution of grinding-induced cracks using a simulation of the grinding process is presented. The simulation uses the grinding wheel profile, grinding conditions and the normal grinding force as input. The grinding operation is considered to be a continuous indentation process arising from a series of abrasive edges. The grinding-induced cracks are estimated based on the indentation fracture mechanics model. Applying the simulation procedure to creep feed grinding of alumina with resinoid diamond wheels resulted in estimates of crack sizes ranging from 3 to 37 μm for the four different grinding conditions that were used in the study.     

Grinding damage of BK7 using copper-resin bond coarse-grained diamond wheel

Coarse-grained wheels can realize high efficient grinding of optical glass. However, the serious surface and subsurface damage will be inevitably introduced by the coarse-grained wheels. In this paper, the grinding damage of a copper-resin bond coarse-grained diamond wheel with grain size of 150μm was investigated on optical glass BK7. The wheel was first properly trued with a metal bond diamond wheel, then pre-dressing for the wheel and grinding experiments are carried out on a precision grinder assisted with electrolytic in process dressing (ELID) method. The surface roughness (Ra) of ground surface was measured using an atomic force microscope (AFM) and the surface topography were imaged by a white light interferometer (WLI) and the AFM. The subsurface damage level of ground surface was evaluated by means of both MRF spot method and taper polishing-etching method, in term of the biggest depth of subsurface damage, distribution of micro defects beneath the ground surface, the cluster depth of subsurface damage, relationship between subsurface damage (SSD) and PV surface roughness (SR), propagating distance and pattern of cracks beneath the ground surface. Experimental results indicate that a well conditioned copper-resin bond coarse-grained diamond wheel on a precision grinder can generate good surface quality of Ra less than 50nm and good subsurface integrity with SSD depth less than 3.5ε for optical glass BK7.     

反复印压作用下光学玻璃的微裂纹交互作用研究

对超声振动辅助磨削加工中BK7光学玻璃材料表面及亚表面的微裂纹扩展过程中的交互作用进行研究,使用维氏金刚石压头进行了BK7光学玻璃二次印压实验来模拟超声振动作用影响下单颗磨粒对光学玻璃的反复印压作用,同时采用界面粘结法获得了不同印压载荷及印压距离下产生的压痕及微裂纹形态特征及分布情况。实验结果表明：在相同载荷加载情况下,第二次印压产生的亚表面中位裂纹扩展最大深度受到侧向裂纹影响减小了30μm,同时侧向裂纹闭合后在光学玻璃材料表面及内部产生破碎。基于压痕断裂力学理论,分析了准静态载荷作用下光学玻璃内部应力场的分布及应力场驱动下微裂纹的扩展机制,对超声振动效应影响下微裂纹扩展的交互作用进行研究。结果表明：磨削过程中使用轴向超声振动辅助,能够有效地降低光学玻璃材料亚表面裂纹的深度,改善亚表面及表面加工质量,同时促进了工件材料的去除。     

磨削力对HIPSN陶瓷磨削亚表面裂纹的影响

采用金刚石砂轮是磨削热等静压氮化硅(HIPSN)陶瓷最常用的加工方法,但是被磨零件亚表面常常伴随裂纹、崩碎等加工损伤,因此研究裂纹扩展一直是工程陶瓷的热点问题。对磨削加工后的HIPSN陶瓷亚表面裂纹进行探究,分析其在磨削加工过程中产生裂纹的原因以及去除机理,研究结果表明在磨削过程中对裂纹进行适当的控制,可以提高陶瓷零件的可靠性。设置单因素实验,对不同磨削参数下HIPSN陶瓷的磨削力进行测量,通过扫描电镜(SEM)对亚表面裂纹和表面形貌进行观察,分析磨削力对亚表面裂纹的影响。实验结果表明:磨削力随着砂轮线速度的增大而减小,随着工件进给速度和磨削深度的增大而增大;当磨削力变大时,陶瓷亚表面裂纹扩展程度增加,表面形貌变差。在粗磨加工HIPSN陶瓷时,可以通过减小工件进给速度和磨削深度,提高砂轮线速度的方法来降低裂纹的扩展程度,能够有效降低后续工艺的加工时间和难度,提高表面质量。     

磨削速度对碳化硅陶瓷磨削损伤影响机制研究

碳化硅陶瓷高速磨削过程中,磨粒对工件材料强力冲击,应变率剧增、复杂显微结构对应力波传送响应转变,材料力学行为发生变化,目前高速磨削对材料去除机制影响的物理本质认识还不清楚。为此,开展磨削速度对SiC陶瓷磨削裂纹损伤影响机制研究。通过单颗磨粒磨削SiC陶瓷试验,分析了磨削速度对SiC陶瓷磨削表面形貌、磨削亚表面裂纹损伤深度、磨削力和磨削比能的影响规律。试验结果表明,当SiC陶瓷材料以脆性方式去除时,磨削速度对裂纹损伤影响最为显著,随着磨削速度从20 m/s增加到160 m/s,磨削亚表面裂纹损伤深度从12.1μm快速降低到6μm。采用Voronoi法建立了金刚石磨削多晶SiC陶瓷有限元仿真模型,当磨粒切厚为0.3μm,磨削亚表面损伤以微裂纹为主;当磨粒切厚为1μm时,随着磨削速度增加,磨削亚表面裂纹损伤深度从14.7μm降低到4.6μm,磨削亚表面宏观沿晶裂纹逐渐变为微观裂纹。基于位错理论和冲击动力学理论,揭示了高速磨削过程中位错密度的增加和晶界反射应力波对应力场削弱作用是高速磨削SiC陶瓷裂纹损伤“趋肤效应”产生的机理。     

单层钎焊金刚石砂轮的精密修整及效果评价

单层钎焊金刚石砂轮作为一种新型的磨削工具,具有磨粒固结强度高、磨粒出露大、容屑空间大等优点,比较适合高效率大切深的强力磨削,然而这种工具对高性能的脆性材料的精密磨削却比较困难。本文通过两种精密的修整工艺,使得加工表面质量大大提高。通过观察砂轮磨粒形态的变化可知,磨粒在修整过程中存在有磨损钝化、破碎、表面粘附等现象;通过对砂轮轮廓的激光测量可知,砂轮的磨粒等高性在修整过程中是明显改善的。通过修整磨粒粒径300μm的钎焊砂轮磨削氧化锆的表面粗糙度达到了Ra0.2μm。     

逼近磨齿法

本文创造了一种逼近加工法。金刚笔仅作很简单的运动,就能将砂轮修成各种曲线形状。采用最优化方法,在计算机上逼近工作曲线。当把锥面砂轮磨齿机的金刚笔移位后,只作一个直线运动,就可将砂轮修成双曲线,为磨制修形齿轮提供了一种新方法。在成形磨齿时,金刚笔仅作一个旋转运动即可将砂轮修成扁圆曲线,它与渐开线仅差几微米,从而可代替渐开线。此外,还可采用较小基圆产生的渐开线逼进齿轮渐开线,使修整器结构大为简化,从而创造出两种新的渐开线成形砂轮修整器。为高效、经济的大众化磨齿工艺开辟了新前景。     

聚晶金刚石复合片的电火花线切割精密加工试验

为了提高聚晶金刚石(PCD)刀具的生产效率,改进加工表面质量并减少刃磨余量,利用慢走丝电火花线切割机床(WEDM)对PCD复合片进行了加工工艺试验.对PCD复合片进行了5次切割,并分别测量了每次加工后的表面粗糙度、富钴界面层凹槽深度及宽度和PCD层刃口加工质量.试验结果表明:PCD复合片经慢走丝线切割多次加工,能够得到较好的表面质量,在众多影响因素中金刚石颗粒大小对加工质量影响较大;其中CTH025型号和CTB010型号的最终表面粗糙度分别为Ra=0.85 μm和Ra=0.57 μm,富钴界面层凹槽的深度分别为16.3 μm和5.7 μm,刃口处切口缺陷的尺寸也与金刚石颗粒的尺寸相当.经WEDM加工后的PCD复合片的刃磨余量可控制在4～15 μm左右.     

Grinding of Aluminium-Based Metal Matrix Composites Reinforced with Al2O3 or SiC Particles

This paper presents results obtained from the grinding of aluminium-based metal matrix composites reinforced with either aluminium oxide (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particles using grinding wheels made of SiC in a vitrified matrix or diamond in a resin-bonded matrix. The study used grinding speeds of 1100–2200 m min^-1 , a grinding depth of 15 _m for rough grinding and 0.1–1 _m for fine grinding, a crossfeed of 3 mm and 1 mm for rough and fine grinding, respectively,while maintaining a constant table feedrate of 20.8 m min ^-1 . Surface integrity of the ground surfaces and subsurfaces was analysed using a scanning electron microscope and a profilometer. Grinding using a 3000-grit diamond wheel at depths of cut of 1 _m and 0.5 _m produced ductile streaks on the Al2O3 particles and the SiC particles, respectively. There was almost no subsurface damage except for rare cracked particles when fine grinding with the diamond wheel.     

An experimental study on the grinding of alumina with a monolayer brazed diamond wheel

A monolayer diamond grinding wheel was fabricated by brazing in vacuum. The wheel was then used to grind alumina at three different grinding speeds. The horizontal and vertical grinding forces, and the grinding temperatures were measured during grinding. SEM observations were made for the ground workpiece surfaces. The influences of the peripheral wheel speed on the grinding forces, specific grinding energy and grinding temperatures were analyzed under different combinations of depth of cut and workpiece velocity. The dependence of the average grinding force per grain and specific grinding energy on the maximum undeformed chip thickness was discussed respectively. It was found that an increase in the peripheral wheel speed reduced grinding force, but increased force ratio, specific grinding energy, and grinding temperature.     

电镀金刚石砂轮高效精密修整及熔融石英磨削试验研究

大尺寸光学玻璃元件主要采用细磨粒金刚石砂轮进行精密/超精密磨削加工,但存在砂轮修整频繁、工件表面面形精度难以保证、加工效率低等缺点。采用大磨粒金刚石砂轮进行加工则具有磨削比大、工件面形精度高等优点,然而高效精密的修整是其实现精密磨削的关键技术。采用Cr12钢对电镀金刚石砂轮(磨粒粒径151 μm)进行粗修整,借助修整区域聚集的热量加快金刚石的磨损,可使砂轮的回转误差快速降至10 μm以内。结合在线电解修锐技术,采用杯形金刚石修整滚轮对粗修整后的电镀砂轮进行精修整,砂轮的回转误差可达6 μm以内,轴向梯度误差由6 μm降至2.5 μm。通过对修整前后的金刚石砂轮表面磨损形貌成像及其拉曼光谱曲线分析了修整的机理。对应于不同的砂轮修整阶段进行熔融石英光学玻璃磨削试验,结果表明,砂轮回转误差较大时,工件材料表面以脆性断裂去除为主;随着砂轮回转误差和轴向梯度误差的减小,工件表面材料以塑性去除为主,磨削表面粗糙度为Ra19.6 nm,亚表层损伤深度低至2 μm。可见,经过精密修整的大磨粒电镀金刚石砂轮可以实现对光学玻璃的精密磨削。     

工件旋转法磨削硅片的磨粒切削深度模型

半导体器件制造中,工件旋转法磨削是大尺寸硅片正面平坦化加工和背面薄化加工最广泛应用的加工方法。磨粒切削深度是反映磨削条件综合作用的磨削参量,其大小直接影响磨削工件的表面/亚表面质量,研究工件旋转法磨削的磨粒切削深度模型对于实现硅片高效率高质量磨削加工具有重要的指导意义。通过分析工件旋转法磨削过程中砂轮、磨粒和硅片之间的相对运动,建立磨粒切削深度模型,得到磨粒切削深度与砂轮直径和齿宽、加工参数以及工件表面作用位置间的数学关系。根据推导的磨粒切削深度公式,进一步研究工件旋转法磨削硅片时产生的亚表面损伤沿工件半径方向的变化趋势以及加工条件对磨削硅片亚表面损伤的影响规律,并进行试验验证。结果表明,工件旋转法磨削硅片的亚表面损伤深度沿硅片半径方向从边缘到中心逐渐减小,随着砂轮磨粒粒径、砂轮进给速度、工件转速的增大和砂轮转速的减小,加工硅片的亚表面损伤也随之变大,试验结果与模型分析结果一致。     

KDP晶体加工表面的亚表面损伤检测与分析

采用截面显微法和择优蚀刻法分别对磷酸二氢钾(KDP)晶体从线切割样品制备到磨削、抛光亚表面损伤进行检测,利用OLYMPUS MX40光学显微镜对表面腐蚀现象与亚表面裂纹形状进行观测,并对裂纹深度进行测量。结果表明,由线切割产生的亚表面损伤裂纹形状以"斜线状"为主,裂纹深度最大值为85.59 μm;由#600砂轮磨削产生的亚表面损伤深度最大值为8.55 μm。在(001)晶面出现了四方形的分布密度较高的位错腐蚀坑;而在三倍频晶面上出现的是密度较低、形状类似梯形的位错腐蚀坑。该研究为KDP晶体亚表面损伤提供了一种检测与分析手段。     

Theoretical model of brittle material removal fraction related to surface roughness and subsurface damage depth of optical glass during precision grinding

Brittle material removal fraction (BRF) is defined as the area fraction of brittle material removed on machined surface. In the present study, a novel theoretical model of BRF was proposed based on indentation profile caused by intersecting of lateral cracks. The proposed model is related to surface roughness and the subsurface damage (SSD) depth of optical glass during precision grinding. To investigate the indentation profile, indentation tests of K9 optical glass were conducted using single random-shape diamond grains. The experimental results indicate that the indentation profile is an exponent function. To verify the proposed BRF model, BRF, surface roughness and SSD depth of K9 optical glasses were investigated by a series of grinding experiments with different cutting depths. The experimental results show that BRF is dependent on surface roughness and SSD depth. The relationship between BRF, surface roughness and SSD depth is in good accordance with the proposed theoretical model. The proposed BRF model is a reasonable approach for estimating surface roughness and SSD depth during precision grinding of optical glass.     

Subsurface damage pattern and formation mechanism of monocrystalline β-Ga2O3 in grinding process

Monocrystalline beta-phase gallium oxide (β-Ga₂O₃) is a promising ultrawide bandgap semiconductor material. However, the deformation mechanism in ultraprecision machining has not yet been revealed. The aim of this study is to investigate the damage pattern and formation mechanism of monocrystalline β-Ga₂O₃ in different grinding processes. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe the subsurface damage in rough, fine, and ultrafine grinding processes. Nanocrystals and stacking faults existed in all three processes, dislocations and twins were observed in the rough and fine grinding processes, cracks were also observed in the rough grinding process, and amorphous phase were only present in the ultrafine grinding process. The subsurface damage thickness of the samples decreased with the reduction in the grit radius and the grit depth of cut. Subsurface damage models for grinding process were established on the basis of the grinding principle, revealing the mechanism of the mechanical effect of grits on the damage pattern. The formation of nanocrystals and amorphous phase was related to the grinding conditions and material characteristics. It is important to investigate the ultraprecision grinding process of monocrystalline β-Ga₂O₃. The results in this work are supposed to provide guidance for the damage control of monocrystalline β-Ga₂O₃ grinding process.     

超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co涂层的高速磨削机理试验研究

针对超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co高硬涂层的加工难题,对WC-17Co涂层进行了高速/超高速磨削试验。通过考察不同金刚石砂轮和磨削工艺参数对磨削力、磨削温度和表面残余应力、表面/亚表面微观形貌和表面粗糙度的影响,讨论了最大未变形切屑厚度与比磨削能的内在关系,分析了磨削温度对表面残余应力的作用规律,探讨了法向磨削力对涂层亚表面损伤的作用规律。结果表明：WC-17Co涂层磨削去除是脆性和延性去除并存;提高砂轮线速度将使磨削力先快速减小后缓慢增大,磨削温度持续升高,涂层磨削从脆性去除转为延性去除的趋势也逐渐增强,表面残余应力由压应力逐渐转变为拉应力,而磨削高温引起涂层热塑性变形是表面残余应力状态转变的根本原因。涂层亚表面磨削损伤层平均深度随法向磨削力的增大而变大。提高砂轮线速度、降低工作台速度和减小磨削深度均能增大涂层磨削塑性去除的比例。     

光学玻璃超声振动磨削亚表面损伤的试验研究

进行光学玻璃BK7超声振动辅助磨削试验,采用截面抛光法配合HF酸腐蚀法并通过扫描电子显微镜观测获得亚表面裂纹的最大深度,研究了主轴转速、磨削深度、进给速度和超声振动振幅对亚表面损伤裂纹最大深度的影响规律,分析了亚表面裂纹的几种形态及其成因。结果表明,随着主轴转速和超声振动振幅增大,磨削深度及进给速度减小,亚表面最大裂纹深度明显减小。超声振动的引入改善了磨削时的加工条件,对提高加工表面及亚表面的质量有一定帮助。     

光学镜片亚表面损伤形成数值模拟与分析

针对当前光学镜片亚表面损伤的研究重点主要集中在加工工艺参数及磨粒粒径、分布等方面的现状,基于脆性材料压痕断裂理论,深入分析了加工过程所导致光学镜片亚表面损伤,对不同锐度角的磨粒在相同载荷不同加工速度下与光学镜片表面间的抛光过程进行了微观动态仿真。获得了在不同加工参数作用下磨头与镜片表面间的摩擦接触、应力应变分布及亚表面损伤等情况,归纳出亚表面损伤裂纹深度、亚表面损伤空穴深度、体积去除率、表面破损率、磨粒锐度角及磨抛速度等相关参数之间的关系,并得出如下结论：当磨粒锐度角为54°~58°,加工速度为7～8m/s时,加工后的镜片在保证一定加工效率的同时,产生的亚表面损伤及表面破损率最小。