层状岩体各向异性损伤力学特征的试验研究

为分析层状岩体各向异性损伤对材料力学参数劣化的影响,室内钻取8种层理倾角的岩样进行单轴压缩试验,基于岩石材料强度服从Weibull分布建立损伤变量的演化方程,分别得出损伤变量随累计应变、层理倾角及破坏模式的变化规律,并分析其各向异性的内在机理。研究结果表明,各向异性损伤主要反映不同倾角的岩石参数在加载过程中不同的劣化程度;损伤变量随累计应变增加逐渐增加,增速呈慢-快-慢趋势;不同倾角岩石的损伤变量的分布规律与岩体弹性模量、抗压强度对应关系较好,即缓倾角和陡倾角时,损伤较小;在发生沿层理面方向的滑移破坏时(倾角为53°左右),损伤变量最大且对层理倾角变化最敏感;损伤变量各向异性度随累计应变的增加呈增加趋势;损伤变量与破坏模式之间有良好的对应关系。研究成果可为工程实践提供理论指导。     

单裂隙分布对复合岩样力学性质和扩展破坏的影响

在富存复杂裂隙的层理岩体中，裂隙分布对其力学性质及损伤破坏具有显著影响。以由类砂岩和类大理岩组成的复合裂隙岩样为例，采用单轴压缩试验和DIC技术，分析裂隙位置和裂隙倾角对岩样力学性质和破坏的影响。结果表明，岩样的力学性质随裂隙位置依次从大理岩、交界面到砂岩的改变及裂隙倾角的增加呈增加趋势。裂隙位置对岩样破坏影响为当裂隙在大理岩中时，初始裂纹易为砂岩中的远场裂纹，表面剥落在砂岩和大理岩中均有发生，但砂岩处破坏更明显，易发生“H形破坏”;当裂隙在交界面和砂岩时，易为砂岩处裂尖产生的翼裂纹、反翼裂纹，剥落现象只发生在砂岩处，分别易发生“1γ形破坏”和“y形破坏”;同时，初始裂纹产生对应的应力应变水平σ、ε随裂隙位置由砂岩、交界面到大理岩的改变依次提高。裂隙倾角对岩样破坏影响为α=90°时裂尖不易起裂，α=45°时裂尖易起裂；在相同裂隙倾角下，裂隙位置相同时α=90°的σ、ε最大，α=0°、45°时最小；α=0°时均发生“H形破坏”,α=90°时均发生“y形破坏”。研究结果对实际工程建设和设计具有指导性意义。     

不同层面倾角下锦屏一级水电站左岸板岩坡体破坏模式及能量特征

为了合理分析锦屏一级水电站左岸坡体的变形,选取坡体板岩进行巴西劈裂试验,分别研究了不同层面倾角下不同饱水率板岩的力学特性及能量特征。结果表明,板岩的抗拉强度随层面倾角的不断增加先减小后增加,其最大降幅达82%;同一层面倾角下,随着饱水程度的增加,板岩抗拉强度逐渐降低,在层面倾角为45°时,抗拉强度从1.64MPa降至0.52MPa,降幅达68%;试样层面倾角0°~90°的破坏受饱水率的影响较小,主要由层面倾角控制,破坏特征分为岩石拉伸型破坏、层面剪切破坏、基质-层面互剪型破坏、层面张拉破坏四种模式;试样破坏的累积能量随饱水程度的增加而不断减小,在相同饱水程度下,累积能量随层面倾角的增大而逐渐减小,累积能量的增长速率与荷载比成非线性关系,在轴向荷载达40%~80%时增长最快。     

金沙江向家坝水电站坝基砂岩蠕变特性研究

选取了金沙江向家坝水电站坝基的典型砂岩试样,采用三轴压缩试验对砂岩蠕变特性进行研究,分析了流变失稳破坏时的特征及砂岩的轴向、侧向和体积应变的全过程蠕变曲线异同点,对砂岩的长期强度进行预测分析。试验结果表明,砂岩存在一个起始蠕变应力阈值,每级荷载下的蠕变曲线之前都存在一个瞬时应变且随着围压的增大和偏应力的增大幅度越来越小,轴向瞬时应变与偏应力具有很好的线性关系;侧向和体积变形则存在明显的蠕变三阶段,加速阶段要比轴向快且两者的蠕变曲线形状相似,在同一围压和同一级偏应力下侧向蠕变量比轴向及体积的大,其蠕变发展最快;砂岩的长期强度可用等时偏应力应变曲线簇来进行确定,采用体积偏应力应变曲线簇更适宜,在已有的流变模型中伯格斯模型能较好的反映砂岩蠕变特性。     

Hoek-Brown准则高应力条件下断续节理岩体复合损伤本构模型及演化特征

针对岩石损伤本构模型中岩石微元强度采用M-C、D-P等强度准则作为判定依据存在的局限性,基于概率统计理论与连续损伤力学理论,采用应力不变式表示的H-B准则来描述岩石微元强度并假设岩石微元强度服从Weibull分布,认为岩石材料承载能力可以分为弹性和损伤两部分,基于Lemaitre应变等效性假设,推导出基于H-B准则的宏细观复合损伤本构模型,并通过预置裂隙粗晶大理岩试样的三轴试验数据验证了其合理性。结果表明,该模型获得的应力应变理论曲线与试验数据吻合较好,宏细观复合损伤演化过程能反映岩石应力随应变的变化过程,优于同类型本构模型的拟合效果;随着围压的增加,试样强度逐渐增加,峰值应力对应的复合损伤值逐渐增大;在围压一定的条件下,节理岩样的宏细观复合损伤在节理倾角为45°左右时最小,这与节理岩体强度随节理倾角的变化规律相一致。     

层状岩体引水隧洞围岩稳定性数值模拟分析

为研究不同产状下层状岩体引水隧洞在施工中围岩稳定性特征,以青海省引大济湟部分引水隧洞为例,建立不同岩层倾角下引水隧洞的三维有限元计算模型,计算不同倾角下层状岩体引水隧洞的围岩位移、塑性区范围、最大主应力及支护结构内力的变化规律。结果表明,拱顶沉降与底板隆起在岩层倾角为45°+φ/2(φ为岩体内摩擦角)时达到峰值;0°倾角时水平收敛最大;90°时塑性区和位移较大值分布在两侧直边墙顶部和底部,易发生边墙折断破坏;岩层倾角为0°、90°时最大主应力沿隧洞断面近似呈对称分布;30°～70°时最大值点随层理面平行方向移动。支护结构内力较大的围岩倾角是0°倾角,该角度上拱圈各点弯矩较大,应注意拱顶弯折破坏,不同岩层倾角下二衬计算安全系数均满足规范要求,在施工时应充分重视二衬施做前围岩的变形监控。     

含两条共面非贯通裂隙岩石的单轴压缩特性数值研究

为了解加载方向对含两条共面非贯通裂隙岩石破坏特性和破坏强度的影响,以随机均布Voronoi图为基础,精细化地描述了裂隙岩石的细观结构,生成了7个不同裂隙倾角的数值试件,基于改进刚体弹簧法,对7个不同裂隙倾角的试件进行单轴压缩数值试验,并从宏观和细观两个尺度模拟了倾角不同的7个岩石试件的贯通模式、变形和强度特性。结果表明,当倾角为0°时,共面裂隙不贯通;当倾角为15°、30°、45°和90°时,共面裂隙间接贯通;当倾角为60°和75°时,共面裂隙直接贯通;裂隙岩石在强度上表现出明显的各向异性。     

不同倾角太阳能热水器北京地区热性能试验研究

为确定北京地区不同倾斜角度对紧凑式全玻璃真空管太阳能热水器的影响,本文对不同倾角太阳能热水器集热性能进行试验分析.试验结果表明,相同辐照情况自然循环时,5°～45°倾角太阳能热水器集热性能较为一致,集热性能较好;60°～ 90°倾角太阳能热水器集热性能有所降低,90°倾角热水器集热性能最低.     

真空管热水器倾角的数值模拟分析

利用fluent软件中的太阳载荷模型对真空管家用太阳热水器进行了三维数值模拟计算,分析了30°、45°、60°倾角下真空管热水器内的流场和温度场随加热时间的变化及传热和流动过程。结果表明,真空管热水器在加热期间,在真空管管口的上壁面出现温度最大值,水箱内真空管管口以下水的温度相对于管口以上的温度分层很明显,水箱内真空管管口以上的热水温度几乎相同,说明水箱内管口以上的水进行了充分混合;对于30°和45°倾角的系统,随着加热时间的增加,水箱内管口以下的水温与管口以上的水温从10 K增加到30 K,以45°倾角为例,当考虑了水箱内管口以下的冷水区时,随着加热时间的增加,真空管与水箱内的温差从0.73 K增大到1.13 K,仅考虑水箱内均匀分布的三点时,随着加热时间的增加,真空管与水箱内的温差从0.15 K减小到了0.03 K;随着系统倾角从30°增加到60°,水箱内管口以下的冷水区域在逐渐减小。因此,为了减小水箱底部的冷水区,插入水箱内的真空管应尽可能短。     

砂岩蠕变力学特性及流变模型研究

水利枢纽工程中库岸高边坡流变现象显著,是工程长期稳定性的潜在隐患。以某大型水利枢纽工程近坝库岸高边坡石英砂岩为例,采用RLW-2000岩石三轴流变试验系统进行不同应力状态下的蠕变力学试验。结果表明,岩石瞬时应变、蠕应变随围压的增加而逐渐增大,初始、稳态和极限加速蠕变速率随围压的提升而递增;围压促进砂岩蠕变变形发展,高围压下的初始蠕变速率可能大于低围压下的极限加速蠕变速率;砂岩在围压5、10、15MPa下的长期强度分别为24.8、32.3、39.7MPa,长期强度随围压的增强而逐渐增大。结合试验成果,分析砂岩的流变性态为粘性-粘弹性-粘塑性,基于统一流变力学模型理论,确定H-H|N-N-N|S模型结构。由于传统元件模型难以辨识不同加速蠕变阶段曲线形态,引入SN和SP非线性元件改进传统模型,得到一个新的非线性蠕变力学模型,并将其拓展到三维情形。辨识蠕变试验数据,对比预测曲线和试验数据,证明了所建模型的可行性和合理性。研究成果可为水利枢纽工程的长期稳定性分析提供参考。     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Exergetic evaluation of 5 biowastes-to-biofuels routes via gasification

This paper presents the exergy analysis results for the production of several biofuels, i.e., SNG (synthetic natural gas), methanol, Fischer–Tropsch fuels, hydrogen, as well as heat and electricity, from several biowastes generated in the Dutch province of Friesland, selected as one of the typical European regions. Biowastes have been classified in 5 virtual streams according to their ultimate and proximate analysis. All production chains have been modeled in Aspen Plus in order to analyze their technical performance. The common steps for all the production chains are: pre-treatment, gasification, gas cleaning, water–gas-shift reactions, catalytic reactors, final gas separation and upgrading. Optionally a gas turbine and steam turbines are used to produce heat and electricity from unconverted gas and heat removal, respectively. The results show that, in terms of mass conversion, methanol production seems to be the most efficient process for all the biowastes. SNG synthesis is preferred when exergetic efficiency is the objective parameter, but hydrogen process is more efficient when the performance is analyzed by means of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The main exergy losses account for the gasification section, except in the electricity and heat production chain, where the combined cycle is less efficient.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.     

Assessment methods of material ageing using Sdobyrev''s creep rupture model

The physical aspects of the activation energy, in higher and high temperatures, of the metal creep process were examined. The research results of creep-rupture in a uniaxial stress state and the criterion of creep-rupture in biaxial stress states, at two temperatures, are then presented. For these studies creep-rupture, taking case iron as an example the energy and pseudoenergy activation was determined. For complex stress states the criterion of creep-rupture was taken to be Sdobyrev's, i.e. σ_red = σ₁ β + (1 − β)σ_i, where: σ₁-maximal principal stress, σ_i-stress intensity, β-material constant (at variable temperature β = β(T)). The methods of assessment of the material ageing grade are given in percentages of ageing of new material in the following mechanical properties: 1) creep strength in uniaxial stress state, 2) activation energy in uniaxial stress state, 3) criterion creep strength in complex stress states, 4) activation pseudoenergy in complex stress states. The methods 1) and 3) are the relatively simplest because they result from experimental investigations only at nominal temperature of the structure work, however, for methods 2) and 4) it is necessary to perform the experimental investigations at least at two temperatures.     

Production of hydrogen from sewage biosolids in a continuously fed bioreactor: Effect of hydraulic retention time and sparging

Hydrogen was produced from primary sewage biosolids via mesophilic anaerobic fermentation in a continuously fed bioreactor. Prior to fermentation the sewage biosolids were heated to 70 °C for 1 h to inactivate methanogens and during fermentation a cellulose degrading enzyme was added to improve substrate availability. Hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 18, 24, 36 and 48 h were evaluated for the duration of hydrogen production. Without sparging a hydraulic retention time of 24 h resulted in the longest period of hydrogen production (3 days), during which a hydrogen yield of 21.9 L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added to the bioreactor was achieved. Methods of preventing the decline of hydrogen production during continuous fermentation were evaluated. Of the techniques evaluated using nitrogen gas to sparge the bioreactor contents proved to be more effective than flushing just the headspace of the bioreactor. Sparging at 0.06 L L min⁻¹ successfully prevented a decline in hydrogen production and resulted in a yield of 27.0  L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added, over a period of greater than 12 days or 12 HRT. The use of sparging also delayed the build up of acetic acid in the bioreactor, suggesting that it serves to inhibit homoacetogenesis and thus maintain hydrogen production.