Efficient electropulse transformation of intact Candida maltosa cells by different homologous vector plasmids.

Conditions for efficient and quick transformation by electroporation were developed in Candida maltosa. To investigate the efficiency of transformation with integrative as well as with autonomously replicating plasmids, a series of vectors was constructed for homologous transformation of this species. Transformants were obtained with different plasmids as covalently closed circular molecules and as linearized DNA. The influence of recipient strain and plasmid type as well as of cell number and parameters of the supplied electrical pulse on the transformation efficiency have been investigated. A maximum of 7000 transformants per 100 ng of plasmid DNA was reached. The efficiency of transformation was compared with that of the LiCl method.     

Transformation of Candida albicans by electroporation

In contrast to a variety of other yeasts, Candida albicans has proved difficult to transform with high efficiency. Lithium acetate transformation is fast and simple but provides a very low efficiency of DNA transfer (50-100 transformants/microg DNA), while spheroplast transformation, although more efficient ( approximately 300 transformants/microg integrative DNA and 10(3)-10(4) transformants/microg replicative DNA), is complicated and time-consuming. In this study we applied various yeast transformation techniques to C. albicans and selected an electroporation procedure for further optimization. Transformation efficiencies of up to 300 transformants/microg were obtained for an integrative plasmid and up to 4500 transformants/microg for a CARS-carrying plasmid. This reasonably high transformation efficiency, combined with the ease and speed of electroporation in comparison to alternative techniques, make it the preferred method for transformation of C. albicans.     

Selectable marker replacement in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Selectable markers integrated by the ‘gamma’ deletion method (Sikorski and Hieter, 1989) can be efficiently replaced in vivo with other markers by transformation with homologous plasmids. Transformation frequencies in experiments designed to replace original selectable markers with an alternate marker were high and molecular analysis confirmed that all transformants that exhibited the expected phenotypes (loss of the original prototrophy and gain of the alternate prototrophy) resulted from homologous recombination between plasmid sequences at the target locus. This technique involves no plasmid construction and greatly facilitates the generation of yeast cells containing multiple gene disruptions.     

Role of ComEA in DNA uptake during transformation of competent Bacillus subtilis

The role of the competence protein ComEA in DNA uptake during transformation of competent Bacillus subtilis was analyzed by lysed-protoplast transformation (LP transformation). A comEA deletion mutant was constructed by a fusion polymerase chain reaction. Transformants of the mutant were obtained by LP transformation at a frequency of 1.1 × 10(2) transformants per μg DNA, representing a low relative efficiency of transformation [RET (mutant/wild type)] of 2.7 × 10(-6). This implied an important role of the protein during DNA uptake. When analyzing LP transformation of comEA with a plasmid (5.7 kb), a similar RET (mutant/wild type) of 5.6 × 10(-5) was obtained. Following addition of DNA into the comEA mutant culture, the number of transformants increased at a rate of 0.5 transformants/min, which was very low compared with the wild-type (6.9×10(4) transformants/min). However, even in the comEA mutant, DNA uptake began immediately after addition of DNA. Using co-transformation analysis of the comEA mutant, short linkages at distances of 2-156 kb could be detected, but not long linkages at distances of 671-1662 kb. Taken together, the results indicate that ComEA plays an important role in the transfer of transforming DNA into the DNA channel and in controlling the rate of DNA uptake.     

Characterization of the L41 gene in Cryptococcus neoformans: its application as a selectable transformation marker for cycloheximide resistance

A transformation system using resistance to the antibiotic cycloheximide as a dominant selectable marker was developed for the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. A 3.5 kb DNA fragment containing a gene encoding the ribosomal protein L41 was cloned from a wild-type strain of C. neoformans which is sensitive to cycloheximide. The open reading frame of the L41 gene contains five introns and encodes a protein of 107 amino acids, which is similar to those reported for other yeasts. The cycloheximide resistance gene to be used as a marker was constructed by replacing a DNA segment of the wild-type L41 gene, which contained the amino acid proline at its 56th position with a homologous DNA segment from a mutant strain resistant to cycloheximide that contained leucine in that position. Cycloheximide resistant transformants were obtained by electroporation on YEPD plates, supplemented with 10-20 microg/ml cycloheximide, at a maximum efficiency of 300 transformants/microg plasmid DNA. While with other genes, most transformants of serotype D in C. neoformans maintain the transforming DNA as episomes, the cycloheximide-resistant transformants were all the result of ectopic genomic integration events.     

Convenient transformation of anamorphic basidiomycetous yeasts belonging to genus pseudozyma induced by electroporation

A convenient procedure for carrying out transformation by electroporation was optimized for the genus Pseudozyma. Successful transformation was achieved using a plasmid, pUXV1, that confers resistance to hygromycin B; the maximum transformation efficiency was 48 transformants/mug of plasmid DNA. Transformants of Pseudozyma antarctica T-34 expressing a green fluorescent protein were obtained by the procedure.     

Plasmid-mediated reduced phage sensitivity in Streptococcus lactis KR5

The phage insensitivity of Streptococcus lactis KR5 was evaluated for its possible linkage to plasmid DNA. This strain possessed plasmids of 40, 29, 26, 21, 16.5, 10.5, 7.8, and 1.5 Mdal. Plasmid curing using novobiocin resulted in derivatives with increased sensitivity to prolate-headed phage, suggesting the involvement of plasmid DNA in phage insensitivity. Transformation of S. lactis LM0230 protoplasts with the KR5 plasmid DNA pool produced transformants containing a plasmid of about 27 Mdal. These erythromycin-resistant transformants were lactose-positive phage-sensitive or were lactose-negative and exhibited a reduced sensitivity to phage. Agarose gel electrophoresis and restriction endonuclease digestion analysis showed the 27-Mdal plasmid band to be composed of two distinct plasmids of 26 Mdal (pBF61) and 29 Mdal (pBF62), which coded for reduced phage sensitivity and lactose-positive phenotypes, respectively. The mechanisms of reduced phage sensitivity encoded by pBF61 included a restriction/modification system and a mechanism that resulted in reduced plaque size independent of incubation temperature. These results further support the involvement of plasmid DNA in the mechanisms for reduced phage sensitivity in dairy streptococci.     

Essential involvement of the Bacillus subtilis ABC transporter, EcsB, in genetic transformation of purified DNA but not native DNA from protoplast lysates

Involvement of the Bacillus subtilis ABC transporter EcsB in genetic transformation with native DNA from protoplast lysate (LP transformation) was investigated using an ecsB deletion mutant constructed by fusion polymerase chain reaction. In these experiments, the non-transformability phenotype of the ecsB mutant was reversed and high numbers of transformants generated (1.5 × 10⁵/μg DNA). The relative efficiency of transformation (RET) of ecsB to wild type (1.2 × 10^{− 2}) was a thousand times higher using native chromosomal DNA than the RET obtained from purified DNA (< 8.6 × 10^{− 6}). Similar transformation efficiencies were observed using native plasmid DNA. These results rule out a primary role for EcsB as a competence gene regulator. DNA-binding proteins attached to native DNA are not present in purified DNA preparations, and it is possible that such proteins could account for the transformability of the ecsB mutant. Because EcsB may play a role in protein(s) export, we tested exogenous proteins to identify functional replacements. We found that bovine serum albumin (fraction V) partially suppressed the phenotype of the ecsB mutation, leading to transformability with purified DNA. Linkage analysis of the ecsB mutant by LP co-transformation produced a higher co-transformation ratio (42% and 20%) at a distance of 34 kb and 121 kb in the ecsB mutant, compared to the wild-type strain, AYG2 (30.5% and 12.3%). The stimulatory linkage effect observed could be derived from a regulating gene involved in homologous recombination.     

Development of a genetic transformation system for benzene-tolerant Rhodococcus opacus strains

Rhodococcus opacus B-4 and B-9 are tolerant to various organic solvents including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes and styrene, and are suitable bacterial hosts for the production of chemical products from hydrophobic substrates. A 4.4-kb endogenous plasmid (pKNR 01) was isolated from R. opacus B-4 and sequenced completely. Plasmid pKNR 01 encodes proteins that share similarity to replication proteins from the enteric bacterial and actinomycete theta-replication plasmids. A 7.4-kb chimeric plasmid, designated pKNR 01.1, was constructed by fusing XhoI-digested pKNR 01 and Escherichia coli vector pSTV 28. Plasmid pKNR 01.1 had the ability to replicate in B-4 and B-9. A protocol for transformation of B-9 by electroporation was optimized employing pKNR 01.1. Frequencies of 4.1 x 10(5) transformants per mug of plasmid DNA were obtained for B-9 cells, whereas B-4 harboring naturally occurring pKNR 01 was transformed at lower frequencies (approximately 1 x 10(4) transformants per mug of plasmid DNA). Deletion analysis of pKNR 01.1 showed that the 1.9-kb SphI-XhoI region containing the repA and rep B genes and the 0.6-kb region upstream of repA was essential for plasmid maintenance in R. opacus strains.     

采用农杆菌介导转化法的泡盛曲霉表达载体的构建

为在泡盛曲霉中表达外源基因、克服泡盛曲霉常规转化法效率低下的瓶颈,本研究拟构建采用农杆菌介导转化法的泡盛曲霉表达载体。通过PCR,从糖化酶基因(glaA)高效表达的泡盛曲霉菌株SG1 基因组DNA 扩增获得glaA 2.1 kb 启动子片段(包含信号肽编码序列)及1.1kb 终止子片段,构建了外源基因表达盒。以根瘤农杆菌双元载体pCAMBIA1302 为基础,删除非必需区段及多余限制酶位点,插入上述外源基因表达盒及来自丝状真菌标记载体pAN7-1 的潮霉素抗性标记,构建采用农杆菌介导转化法的泡盛曲霉分泌整合型表达载体pSUAA52am。转化结果表明：采用原生质体法的转化效率为21 个转化子/106 分生孢子,而农杆菌介导法可达1106 个转化子/106 分生孢子,是原生质体法的53 倍。构建载体成功利用glaA 表达盒与农杆菌介导转化法的高效特性,可为利用泡盛曲霉高效表达外源基因奠定基础。     

多黏类芽孢杆菌JSa-9电转化方法的优化

为建立多黏类芽孢杆菌JSa-9菌株的高效电击转化体系,本实验研究菌体培养时间、电场强度、电击缓冲液、质粒用量以及电击后复苏培养时间等因素对JSa-9菌株电转化效率的影响。结果表明：Paenibacillus polymyxaJSa-9培养至OD595 nm为0.3时,电转化效率最高,为0.12×103 CFU/μg DNA;用0.5 mol/L甘露醇、0.5 mol/L山梨醇以及10%甘油的电击缓冲液洗涤细胞,在电场强度17.5 kV/cm、电阻200 Ω,电容25 μF的电击条件下,加入1.0 μg/100 mL质粒DNA,复苏培养时间18 h,电转化效率达到约为0.36×103 CFU/μg DNA;制备P. polymyxa JSa-9原生质体,在电场强度5.0 kV/cm的电击条件下,加入0.8 μg/100 mL质粒DNA,电转化效率较感受态电转提高到约1.0×103 CFU/μg DNA。     

Genetic transfer systems for delivery of plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid to Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH: conjugation, electroporation, and transduction

Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH is a bacteriocin-producing human isolate that adheres to human fetal intestinal cells and human ileal cells. We have employed both electroporation and conjugation methodologies to transfer various plasmids to L. acidophilus ADH. Furthermore, we have demonstrated transduction of plasmid DNA within this strain by a temperate bacteriophage (phi adh) harbored by L. acidophilus ADH. Plasmid pGK12 was introduced into strain ADH by electroporation at frequencies as high as 3.3 X 10(5) transformants/micrograms of plasmid DNA. Transconjugants of strain ADH were recovered at frequencies of 10(-2) (pAMB1), 10(-4) (pVA797::Tn917), and 10(-4) (pVA797) per donor cell after filter-mating with Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis. Plasmid pGK12 was transduced from a phage phi adh lysogen into a recipient strain of L. acidophilus ADH at an average frequency of 3.4 X 10(-8) transductants/pfu. Transformants, transconjugants, or transductants were verified by both phenotype and plasmid profile for acquisition of plasmid DNA. The ability to transfer plasmids and mobilize DNA sequences by electroporation, conjugation, and transduction will augment our efforts to define and characterize the activities of L. acidophilus in the intestinal tract.     

Efficient selection of phleomycin-resistant Saccharomyces cerevisiae transformants.

The recently described dominant yeast marker Tn5ble confers phleomycin resistance on the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Gatignol, Baron and Tiraby, 1987. Mol. Gen. Genet. 207, 342-348). Incubation in non-selective medium prior to selection is critical, however, for getting phleomycin-resistant transformants. A 6-h incubation period was found to give optimal transformation frequencies, up to 10(5) transformants/micrograms plasmid, comparable to selection for uracil prototrophy (Ura+).     

PROPERTIES OF A GENETICALLY-ENGINEERED DEXTRIN-FERMENTING STRAIN OF BREWERS' YEAST

A dextrin-fermenting strain of brewer's yeast was obtained by transformation with a recombinant plasmid (pLHCD6) containing a DEX gene. The transformant produced five-fold more extracellular amyloglucosidase (AMG) than the strain of Saccharomyces diastaticus from which DEX was cloned. The growth rate, however, was adversely affected and, consequently, the transformant fermented wort more slowly than the parental (untransformed) strain. A mixed culture was therefore used at pilot-scale, to maintain a rate of fermentation similar to that of the parental strain. The transformant by itself was capable of superattenuating wort (original gravity 1.040) to a specific gravity of 1.0023 (compared with 1.0046 for the parental strain). This represents the expected degree of dextrin breakdown by an AMG with no “debranching” activity which can only hydrolyse alpha-1,4 linkages. A high copy number for the plasmid pLHCD6 was maintained throughout fermentation. The beers produced using the Dex+ transformants were judged to be of sound quality.     

表达豌豆防御素基因的重组酵母对采后柑橘酸腐病的生物防治

抗菌肤(Antimicrobial peptides,APMs)是一类对细菌、真菌等微生物及某些昆虫和动植物细胞具有抑制作用的小分子多肽.将碗豆防御素基因Psd1插入甲醇酵母Pichia pastoris的分泌表达质粒pPIC9K中,并将含有目的基因的重组质粒电转化P.pastoris GS115 (his4),得到重组酵母GS 115/PSD菌株.试验结果表明,重组酵母菌株经扩大培养,诱导表达的菌体被破碎后,酵母悬浮液含量达到5×108细胞/mL时,可以很好地抑制采后柑橘的酸腐病.     

粗壮脉纹孢菌原生质体的制备、再生及转化的条件

为建立原生质体介导的粗壮脉纹孢菌遗传转化系统,本研究主要考察了复合酶解液、菌龄及酶解时间对粗壮脉纹胞菌原生质体生成及再生的影响。结果表明,粗壮脉纹胞菌孢子悬液接种在马铃薯葡萄糖琼脂（potatodextrose agar,PDA）液体培养基中,30 ℃条件下摇床培养10 h的菌丝,采用0.5 g/100 mL蜗牛酶＋0.5 g/100 mL溶壁酶＋1 g/100 mL纤维素酶的复合酶解液、30 ℃条件下酶解10 h,粗壮脉纹胞菌原生质体生成及再生最为适合。在此条件下,原生质体生成数可达4.53×106 个,38#再生培养基中的再生数可达1.41×106 个,再生率达31.71%,聚乙二醇介导PAKHB载体转化NC原生质体,每微克质粒可获得8 个以上的转化子。     

Development of a green fluorescent tagged strain of Aspergillus carbonarius to monitor fungal colonization in grapes

An enhanced green fluorescent protein has been used to tag an OTA-producing strain of Aspergillus carbonarius (W04-40) isolated from naturally infected grape berries. Transformation of the fungus was mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The most efficient transformation occurred when the co-cultivation was done with 10⁴ conidia due to higher frequency of resistance colonies (894 per 10⁴ conidia) and lower background obtained. To confirm the presence of the hph gene in hygromycin resistant colonies, 20 putative transformants were screened by PCR analysis. The hph gene was identified in all the transformants. Variation on the expression levels of the eGFP was detected among the transformants and 50% of them appeared bright green fluorescent under the microscope. Microscopic analysis of all the bright fluorescent transformants revealed homogeneity of the fluorescent signal, which was clearly visible in the hyphae as well as in the conidia. eGFP expression in A. carbonarius was shown to be stable in all transformants. Confocal Laser scanning microscopy images of grape berries infected with the eGFP transformant demonstrated fungal penetration into the berry tissues. OTA production was importantly increased in the eGFP transformant in comparison with the wild type strain and pathogenicity on grape berries was slightly decreased after four days of inoculation. However, no differences in virulence were found after seven days of inoculation, thus allowing utilization of this eGFP mutant for in situ analysis of A. carbonarius infection of grape berries. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the construction of a GFP-tagged strain belonging to Aspergillus section Nigri for monitoring Aspergillus rot on grape berries.     

MET15 as a visual selection marker for Candida albicans

To develop better molecular genetic tools for the diploid yeast Candida albicans, the suitability of the MET15 gene as a visual selection marker was studied. Both MET15 alleles of C. albicans CAI-4 were isolated by functional complementation of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain lacking the MET15 gene. Growth of this complemented strain on Pb(2+)-containing medium was associated with a colour shift of brown into white colonies. The MET15 alleles of C. albicans were located on chromosome 4 by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting. A met15-deficient strain of C. albicans CAI-4 was generated using the ura blaster technique. This strain showed a brown colony colour on Pb(2+)-containing medium, which corresponded with the colony colour of a S. cerevisiae strain lacking the MET15 gene. Unexpectedly, the met15-deficient strain of C. albicans still grew on methionine-depleted medium. However, this growth was severely delayed. In addition, complementation of this strain with an integrative or replicative plasmid containing either of the MET15 alleles resulted in the formation of white transformants on Pb(2+)-containing medium. These transformants grew very well on methionine-depleted medium. Colony sectoring was obtained with the replicative plasmid and not with the integrative one. This study demonstrates that the MET15 gene of C. albicans is suitable as a visual marker and therefore can be used to identify transformants and study plasmid stability. GenBank Accession Nos for MET15 nucleotide sequences are AF188273, AF188274 and AF188275.