Physicochemical and functional properties of full fat and defatted cashew kernel flours

Full fat and defatted cashew kernel flours were prepared and analysed for their physicochemical and functional properties. There were significant increase in protein and carbohydrate contents of the flour as a result of defatting. The defatted flour possessed higher Ca, P, Na and K contents. It had improved gel strength, foaming and emulsion properties. Foam capacity for the full fat and defatted flours increased from 42% to 50% and 55% to 57% with increased NaCl concentration up to 0.25 and 0.05  m , respectively. The foam capacity and stability of the flours were also pH dependent. The emulsion activity and stability of both flours decreased with increasing NaCl concentration. Minimum and maximum protein solubility were at pH 4 and 8, respectively for the full fat and defatted flours. These results suggest that defatted cashew flour may have potential application as a functional ingredient and as a supplement in foods.     

Physicochemical and functional properties of full‐fat and defatted Moringa oleifera kernel flour

Full‐fat and defatted Moringa oleifera kernel flours were analysed for their functional properties. The effect of pH and NaCl concentrations on the functional properties of the flours was investigated following standard procedures. The protein content of full‐fat and defatted flour was 36.18 and 62.76 g/100 g, respectively. The concentrations of other proximate constituents of the defatted flour were higher than those of the full‐fat flour. Nitrogen solubility was lowest at pH of 4.0 and 9.0, respectively, with maximum solubility occurring at pH of 6.0. Defatting increased the water absorption and fat absorption capacities of Moringa oleifera kernel flour. The foaming capacity and foam stability of the defatted flour were 86.0% and 82.0 mL, whereas that of full‐fat flour were 20.6% and 18.5 mL respectively. The defatted flour showed better emulsification (97.2 mL g^?1) than full‐fat flour (66.0 mL g^?1). The least gelation concentration of the defatted and full‐fat flours was 14% and 16% (w/v) respectively. Moringa oleifera kernel flour can be a valuable source of vegetable protein in fortified food products formulation.     

Functional Properties of Drum-Dried Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Flours

The chemical and functional properties of three precooked flours pre-pared from citric acid- and sodium bicarbonate-treated chickpeas were compared with those of raw chickpea and soybean flours. The nitrogen solubility and foaming capacity of the precooked flours were markedly reduced by processing. The acid-treated flours showed higher values of oil absorption and viscosity than the sodium bicarbonate-treated flour, but the latter had a higher bulk density. Even at 10% concentration, the acid-treated flour slurries manifested very low viscosities (about 11 centipoises). No significant difference was detected in the water absorption and gelation capacity of the precooked flours.     

Influence of enzymatic treatment on the nutritional and functional properties of pea flour

The effect of enzymatic treatment on the nutritional value and functional properties of pea flour was investigated. Pea flour was hydrolyzed with acid protease from Aspergillus saitoi, to give two different hydrolyzed pea flours. This enzymatic treatment led to a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in crude and true protein and to an increase of free amino acids and non-protein nitrogen. The nutritional value decreased, but an increase in the avilability of protein was expected as result of lower trypsin inhibitor activity and phytic acid content in hydrolyzed pea flours. The amino acid profile of unhydrolyzed pea flour was slightly modified after enzymatic hydrolysis, increasing (significantly) the isoleucine, leucine, lysine, cystine, phenylalanine, threonine, alanine, arginine and aspartic acid contents as a result of the added enzyme. In addition, enzymatic treatment released hydrophobic amino acids, which significantly improved the protein solubility at acid pH, the oil absorption capacity and the emulsification capacity of pea flours. Protein solubility, foaming capacity, foam stability, water absorption capacity, gelation capacity and green colour decreased. It was thus confirmed that treatment with acid protease improves some functional properties of pea flour, but the effect on nutritional properties was unclear.     

Properties of some citrus seeds. Part 2. Functional properties of seed flours

Water and fat absorption, gelation, protein solubility, emulsification and foam capacities of flours from citron, orange and mandarin seeds were determined. The protein solubility of the flours was increased as sodium chloride concentration increased up to 0.8 M for citron, mandarin and mixture seed flours and 1 M for orange seed flour, then decreased at higher concentrations. The minimum solubility was sharp for mandarin and orange seed flours, while, it was broader for mixture and citron seed flours. The least concentration for forming gel was 6%, 6.5% and 7% for mandarin, orange and both citron and mixture seed samples, respectively. The flours of orange and mandarin seeds were the highest and lowest in water absorption capacity. Also, the highest value of fat absorption capacity was noticed for citron and lastly for mandarin on flour basis. The emulsification and foam capacity-pH patterns were similar to protein solubility-pH profiles for all citrus seed flours. Foam capacity of mandarin and mixture seed flour were lower than that of citron and orange seed flours. The emulsification and foam capacities patterns in sodium chloride solution showed an increase up to 0.6 M and then decreased in all citrus seed flours. Foam stability of citrus seed flours was increased with sodium chloride concentration up to about 0.6 M and then decreased. The foam stability of all citrus seed flours at pH 4.5 was very poor but at pH 2, it was comparable to that at pH 8.     

Functional Properties of Defatted and Detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) Seed Flour

Functional properties of defatted and detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) seed flours were determined and compared with those of soybean flour. Soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours had higher water absorption capacities than defatted Madhuca flour. Due to the presence of saponins, the defatted Madhuca flour showed higher foaming capacity than the soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours.     

Proximate composition and functional properties of African breadfruit kernel and flour blends

African breadfruit seeds (ABS) were toasted at 80 and 120°C for varied period of times. The effects of the toasting temperature and time on selected functional properties of the seed flours were determined. Flour blends were prepared from the toasted ABS and wheat flours. The chemical composition and functional properties of the blends were determined. Toasting increased the water absorption capacity (WAC) of ABS flours with increased toasting time at both toasting temperatures. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) on the other hand, increased up to 20 min of seed toasting at both 80 and 120°C and thereafter decreased. At both 80 and 120°C, the foaming capacity (FC) of the seeds decreased with increased toasting time, with greater decreased at 120°C. The protein, fat, ash and crude fibre contents of the flour blends increased while carbohydrate and moisture contents decreased with increased levels of toasted African breadfruit flour (TABF) in the blends. The TABF showed significantly higher (P<0.05) WAC, OAC, FC and emulsion activity (EA) than wheat flour (WF). These properties increased with increased amounts of TABF in the blends. All the flour blends exhibited a least gelation concentration of 8% (W/V). The bulk density (g/cm³) and wettability values of flour blends varied from 0.74 to 0.84 and 19 to 31, respectively. Heating increased the swelling capacity of the flour blends.     

Effect of some traditional processing operations on the functional properties of African breadfruit seed (Treculia africana) flour

The effect of germination, fermentation, roasting and defatting on the proximate composition, water absorption capacity (WAC), oil absorption capacity (OAC), foaming capacity (FC), foaming stability (FS), emulsion capacity (EC), emulsion stability (ES), packed bulk density (PBD), least gelation concentration (LGC) and protein solubility (PS) of breadfruit seed flour (BSF) was investigated. WAC, OAC, FC, EC, PBD and LGC obtained are 190-380%; 130.3-200.5%; 2.3-60.4%; 12.4-52.9%; 0.4-0.6 g/ml; 6-12% (w/v) and 200-420%; 176.4-320.6; 4.2-70.8%; 20.2-60.4%; 0.5-0.7 g/ml; 0.5-0.8% (w/v) in the full fat and defatted flours respectively. Foams were more stable in the untreated; least in fermented and roasted samples. Defatting improved the FC, FS and EC; roasting and fermentation reduced EC of full fat BSF; Processing and defatting had no effect on the PBD; roasting and germination increased LGC while defatting and fermentation reduced it. Full fat flours had the lowest PS at pH 4 and the highest at pH 8. Fermented full fat BS flour had the highest PS at pH 5 and 8. Defatted germinated, raw dried and roasted BSF had lowest PS at pH 4; PS of fermented BSF is lowest at pH 3 and highest at pH 2.     

苦杏仁蛋白的功能特性

采用稀盐溶液浸提及等电点盐析相结合的方法提取制备苦杏仁蛋白,研究pH值、NaCl浓度、蛋白质量浓度和温度等因素对苦杏仁蛋白功能特性(溶解性、持水性、吸油性、乳化性及乳化稳定性、起泡性及起泡稳定性)的影响。结果表明：在等电点pI附近时,苦杏仁蛋白的溶解性、持水性、乳化性及乳化稳定性、起泡性最差;在较低NaCl浓度范围内(0～0.8mol/L)提高NaCl浓度可促进蛋白溶解性、乳化性及乳化稳定性、起泡性及起泡稳定性的提高,而较高的NaCl浓度对蛋白功能特性提高具有抑制作用;当蛋白质量浓度达到一定水平时(3～4g/100mL),蛋白功能特性(乳化性及乳化稳定性、起泡性及起泡稳定性)提高趋于平缓;在适宜的温度范围内,提高温度可有效提高苦杏仁蛋白各项功能特性,但当温度继续上升,各项功能特性持续降低。     

桑叶蛋白的功能特性研究

采用超声波辅助提取结合盐酸沉析法提取桑叶蛋白,研究pH值、离子强度、蔗糖质量浓度和温度对桑叶蛋白功能特性的影响。结果表明：远离其等电点时,桑叶蛋白具有良好的持水性、溶解度、乳化性及乳化稳定性、起泡性;桑叶蛋白的持水性、溶解度和起泡性与NaCl浓度(0～1.0mol/L)呈正相关,而过高的离子强度(NaCl浓度高于0.6～0.8mol/L)会使桑叶蛋白的乳化性和乳化稳定性下降;蔗糖的加入会增加桑叶蛋白的持水性,但会降低其溶解度和起泡性,对桑叶蛋白的乳化性和乳化稳定性影响不大;桑叶蛋白的吸油性和起泡性与温度(4～80℃)呈正相关,持水性、溶解度、乳化性及乳化稳定性于60℃时最好。     

Physicochemical,functional and cooking properties of under explored legumes,Canavalia of the southwest coast of India

Nutritionally potential under explored wild legumes viz., Canavalia cathartica and Canavalia maritima are widely distributed in mangroves and sand dunes, respectively, in Southwest coast of India. Physicochemical, functional and cooking properties of dried seeds of these legumes have been evaluated. Seeds and cotyledons of C. cathartica are larger and possessing higher hydration and swelling capacity than that of C. maritima indicating higher permeability and softness. The crude protein of C. maritima and C. cathartica were found to be higher than common pulses. The pH vs. protein solubility profile was almost similar with minimum solubility at pH 4 (27.8–28.1%). C. maritima showed higher oil absorption capacity (1.53 ml/g) as well as water absorption (0.1 M) capacity. The gelation capacity was minimal at 0.1 M NaCl and pH 4 for both the seed flours. Addition of carbohydrates (starch, lactose, maltose and sucrose) reduced the lowest gelling capacity of C. maritima except for maltose in C. cathartica. Emulsifying activity (EA) and emulsifying stability (ES) diminished with increasing concentration of flours. Minimum EA and ES were attained at pH 4 and maximum at pH 10 in both seed flours. Maximum EA for C. cathartica and C. maritima (62% vs. 72.6%) was attained at 0.4 M NaCl. The ES vs. flour concentration, pH and ionic strength profiles did not differ much between C. maritima and C. cathartica. Peak foam capacity (FC) and stability (FS) were achieved at 6% (w/v) of C. maritima flour, while the same was attained at 8% (w/v) of C. cathartica. The FC and FS of the seed flours improved with increasing pH (pH 2–10). C. maritima flour exhibited the better FC (27.7%), while C. cathartica exhibited better FS (44.42%) at pH 10. Although highest FC was attained at 0.4 M NaCl in both flours, C. maritima was found to be superior (30.5% vs. 28.5%). The flour of C. maritima attained the highest FS at 0.2 M NaCl than C. cathartica (0.4 M NaCl). The minimum cooking time for cotyledons of C. cathartica was more and higher gruel solid loss was reported due to its high L/B ratio. The Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that functional properties of seed flours vary due to their chemical composition.     

Effect of micronisation temperature (130 and 170 °C) on functional properties of cowpea flour

Functional properties of cowpea flour from seeds micronised at two different surface temperatures (130 and 170 °C) were studied. Micronisation (130 and 170 °C) significantly (P ? 0.05) increased the water absorption capacity and least gelation concentration of the flour. The treatment significantly (P ? 0.05) reduced the water solubility and swelling indices, gel strength and foaming capacity of the flour. The changes in cowpea flour functional properties, such as the loss of foaming capacity in flours from micronised (130 and 170 °C) seeds, were associated with significant (P ? 0.05) increase in the surface hydrophobicity and cross-linking of the cowpea protein. SDS–PAGE of the protein-rich fractions revealed changes in the protein subunit profile which included the formation of disulphide bonds and possibly Maillard cross-links. The flour from M-170 °C seeds was significantly (P ? 0.05) darker than was the flour from unmicronised and M-130 °C seeds.     

Chemical composition and functional properties of raw and roasted Nigerian benniseed (Sesamum indicum) and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean)

Benniseed and bambara groundnut seeds were roasted at 80 and 120 °C for 10–60 min. For both flours, the effects of roasting temperature and time on selected functional properties and chemical composition were determined, as were the effects of pH on the emulsification capacity and nitrogen solubility. The chemical constituents of the raw flours were present at higher concentrations than those of the roasted flours except for fat and ash. Protein concentrates of both flours contained 80.5–81.5% crude protein as the major constituent. Nitrogen solubility was lowest at pH 4.0 for raw and roasted benniseed flour and pH 5.0 for raw and roasted bambara groundnut flour. Roasting generally lowered the nitrogen solubility and increased the water and oil absorption capacities while decreasing the foaming capacity and emulsification capacity of both flours.     

Physicochemical,nutritional and functional properties of marama bean flour

Marama bean is a protein-rich, underutilised, drought-tolerant legume in sub-Saharan Africa. Its utilisation may be increased through value addition into protein-rich flours. Defatted flour from unheated and dry-heated (150 °C/20 min) whole marama beans (UMF and HMF) were analysed for physicochemical and protein-based functional properties. Heating significantly increased in vitro protein digestibility of marama bean flour. Of functional importance are the high levels of tyrosine present in marama bean flours. Heating significantly reduced protein solubility and emulsifying capacity of marama bean flours whilst water absorption capacity was improved. Foaming capacity was not affected by heating. UMF could be useful in food systems requiring high emulsifying capacity, but would not be suitable for applications requiring high water absorption and foaming capacity. Due to its high protein contents, marama bean flour could be used to increase the protein quality of cereal-based foods to help alleviate protein-energy nutrition in the region.     

脱皮脱脂杂豆粉的理化与功能特性

以大白芸豆、奶花芸豆、小白芸豆、豇豆、绿豆、红小豆、小扁豆、豌豆8种食用杂豆为实验材料,以大豆为对照,对其脱皮、脱脂后的杂豆粉理化特性和功能特性进行比较分析。结果表明：与脱皮脱脂大豆粉相比,脱皮脱脂杂豆粉的堆积密度和吸水性指数高,水溶性指数、吸水能力、吸油能力低,乳化性、乳化稳定性差异不显著,凝胶能力强,起泡性及起泡稳定性差异显著。不同杂豆粉之间的理化特性与功能特性有差异。脱脂大白芸豆粉的堆积密度小,水溶性指数、吸油性和乳化稳定性高;脱脂小白芸豆粉吸水性、乳化性、起泡性及起泡稳定性强;脱脂豌豆粉凝胶能力和起泡性好,乳化稳定性差。     

Emulsifying and foaming capacity and emulsion and foam stability of sesame protein concentrates

This study examined the effects of oil concentration and pH on the emulsifying and foaming characteristics of sesame protein concentrate (SESPC). SESPC was obtained through a simplified process, and its properties were compared with those of a commercial soybean concentrate (SOYPC). The simplified process did not affect the functional characteristics of SESPC, which were often similar or superior to those of the SOYPC. The maximum emulsifying capacity of SESPC was 38% at an acidic and alkaline pH, while the maximum emulsifying capacity of SOYPC was 44% at the same pH. Emulsifying capacity increased significantly as oil concentration increased; in SESPC, this capacity increased from 7.8 to 60.0%, while in SOYPC it increased from 7.6 to 68.2%. The emulsion stability of SESPC was greater at an acidic pH (51%) than at an alkaline pH (45%); it was also higher than the emulsion stability of SOYPC. The maximum emulsion stability of SESPC (96%) was obtained at a sample concentration greater than 55 g L^− 1 and oil concentration lees than 550 g L^− 1 oil. Minimum (118.3%) and maximum (240%) levels of SESPC foaming capacity were higher than those obtained for SOYPC (92% as maximum). These findings show that SESPC may have potential use as raw matter in the food industry. At an extreme pH, SESPC continued to have important functional characteristics like emulsion stability, oil absorption and foaming capacity.     

Functional Properties of Protein Products of Mass Cultivated Blue-Green Alga Spirulina Platensia

Water and fat absorption capacity, Emulsification Capacity (EC), Foaming Capacity (FC) and Foaming Stability (FS) of flour and protein concentrate of Spirulina cells were compared with those of soybean meal both as a function of pH and NaCl concentration. Water and fat absorption capacities of Spirulina flour were 220g and 190g/100g of sample respectively; those of soybean meal were 230g and 120g/100g of sample. Protein concentrate had a lower water absorption capacity, higher fat absorption capacity than its flour. It had higher EC and similar FC. Spirulina flour had similar EC and FC to that of soybean meal. The FS of flour (18%) and protein concentrate (27%) was poor when compared to soybean meal (55%).     

Natural fermentation of lentils. Functional properties and potential in breadmaking of fermented lentil flour

The effects of fermentation on functional properties of lentil flour and rheological properties of doughs and breads produced from blends of wheat and fermented lentil flour were studied. Lentil protein solubility was higher at neutral pH than acid pH; the lowest and highest protein solubility values were observed at pH 4.0 and pH 7.0, respectively. Water hydration capacity and fat binding capacity of fermented lentil flour (FLF) were always higher than those of non-fermented lentil flour (NFLF), irrespective of fermentation temperature (28–42°C) and flour concentration (79–221 g/l). Emulsifying properties of NFLF were similar to the properties of other legume flours in the range used in experiment. In contrast, the emulsion capacity and stability of FLF were very low and flours fermented at 42°C did not even form emulsion. Rheological properties of doughs made from wheat-fermented lentil blends were similar to those from wheat flour with the addition of other legume flours such as pea and bean. Good quality breads were produced at 2.5 to 10% NFLF and FLF supplementation (except for bread with 10% FLF addition which was middle quality).     

Comparative study of the emulsifying and foaming properties of defatted coriander (Coriandrum sativum) seed flour and protein concentrate

Emulsifying and foaming properties were determined for coriander protein products (defatted flour and protein concentrate) at pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.0 and the results compared with those obtained for defatted soybean flour. Mean oil droplet size and interfacial protein concentration was smallest for emulsions (∼17% oil, v/v) stabilized by the coriander protein concentrate, when compared to the coriander and soybean flours. Polypeptide composition of the interfacial protein membrane of the emulsions was different from the polypeptide composition present in the respective coriander flour and protein concentrate. In contrast, soybean flour-stabilized emulsions contained similar polypeptide composition to that of the flour. Soybean flour formed the greatest amount of foams at pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.0 followed by the coriander flour, which had greater amounts of foam at pH 4.0 and 5.0. The foam stability of both the coriander flour and protein concentrate were significantly (P⩽0.05) less than those of the soybean flour. It was concluded that the reduced level of non-protein components in the coriander protein concentrate favoured increased surface activity at the oil–water interface but not at the air–water interface.     

Physical and functional characteristics of selected dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) flours

Many varieties of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are available with entirely different physico-chemical and sensory characteristics. Selected dry bean varieties (red kidney, small red kidney, cranberry and black) were processed into flour and analyzed for the physico-chemical and functional characteristics. The bulk density of the beans flours varied significantly (p < 0.05) from 0.515 g/ml for black bean flour to 0.556 g/ml for red kidney bean flour. The small red kidney bean flour had the highest water absorption capacity (2.65 g/g flour) while black bean flour showed the lowest at 2.23 g/g flour. Significant differences were observed for oil absorption capacities of bean flours, which ranged from 1.23 g/g for small red kidney bean flour to 1.52 g/g for red kidney bean flour. The bean flours emulsion capacity and stability and foaming capacity and stability also varied significantly and was variety-dependent. The highest apparent viscosity, 0.462 Pa.s, was recorded for small red kidney bean flour whereas black bean flour exhibited the lowest value of 0.073 Pa.s at 30 g/100 ml water content in the flour dispersions. The force-deformation curves for doughs from different bean flours showed that black bean flour had the highest peak force or hardness value of 90.7 N followed by doughs from cranberry, small red kidney and red kidney bean flours. The results of this study offer useful data on bean flours' potential uses in different food products.