Novel processing method for metallic materials

The feasibility of a new process that integrates all thermal and mechanical operations involved in the production of wrought metal strips was examined. The process involves continuous extrusion on a screw type extruder. A Pb-2.0% Sb alloy was used as a model material. Continuous strips of metal could be produced when back leakage of the melt was limited. For this, the clearance between screw and extruder barrel had to be kept small and the viscosity of the partially solidified alloy had to be kept high by limiting the rotational speed and by maintaining an experimentally determined temperature profile along the extruder barrel. Intense shearing of the material resulted in rapid homogenization and in dynamic recrystallization of the metallic matrix.     

小模数齿形精冲的数值模拟及参数优化

文章运用有限元分析软件对小模数齿形件精冲过程进行数值模拟,研究冲裁间隙、压边圈尺寸、压边力、反压力、凹模刃口圆角等主要工艺参数对成形结果的影响,得出了各工艺参数与冲裁剪切面光洁程度的关系。同时引入Cockcroft&Latham韧性断裂准则预测裂纹出现和扩展的时间及位置,探讨了成形过程中各种缺陷(撕裂带、裂纹等)产生的原因,并通过实验验证了部分模拟分析结果。     

Machining accuracy for shearing process of thin-sheet metals—Development of initial tool position adjustment system

In the shearing process, clearance has a significant effect on machining accuracy. However, the relationship between uneven clearance caused by misalignment of tool position and machining accuracy remains unclear. This is attributed to the fact that, previously, the effect was small because the thickness of the workpiece was not so thin, and a method for precisely measuring and adjusting the tool position had not been established. Therefore, in the present study, a new method of adjusting the initial tool position is developed. In addition, punching experiments are conducted under the condition that the initial tool position is adjusted to an accuracy of 2 μm or better, and the effects of clearance on machining accuracy, shape of cross-section, and diameter of hole, are investigated in three types of materials. From these results, the importance of adjusting the initial tool position is clarified.     

Determination of Some Parameters for Fatigue Life in Welded Joints Using Fracture Mechanics Method

In this work, the parameters stress intensity factor (SIF), initial and final crack lengths (a _i and a _f), crack growth parameters (C and m), and fatigue strength (FAT) are investigated. The determination of initial crack length seems to be the most serious factor in fatigue life and strength calculations for welded joints. A fracture mechanics approach was used in these calculations based on SIF which was calculated with the finite element method (FEM). The weld toe crack was determined to be equal to 0.1 mm, whereas the weld root crack’s length was varied depending on the degree of the weld penetration. These initial crack length values are applicable for all types of joints which have the same crack phenomenon. As based on the above calculated parameters, the new limits of FAT for new geometries which are not listed yet in recommendations can be calculated according to the current approach.     

Modelling and experimental analysis of the effects of tool wear on form errors in stainless steel blanking

The main defects that characterize the quality and accuracy of blanked parts are the form errors which can be found on the blanked surface. These defects are basically related to tool wear and process parameters. This work presents theoretical modelling of the effects of tool wear on the shearing mechanism and resulting form errors. To this end, a new parameter denominated effective clearance, which characterizes the distance between a punch and the die cutting edge when a tool is worn, is defined. An experimental analysis of form errors as a function of this new parameter is made, using 6 and 8 mm AISI A2 steel punches and 1 mm thick AISI 304 stainless steel sheet. Finally, design criteria are proposed for the process parameters to fulfil the quality requirements of blanked parts.     

金属板材无毛刺精密分切新工艺分切断面形貌特征

基于负间隙冲裁加工原理,针对圆盘剪纵向分切加工,通过分析控制分切过程的材料应力状态,将分切过程分解为塑性剪切和压迫分离两个阶段,提出金属板材无毛刺精密分切新方法,即塑性剪切压迫分离精密分切工艺。采用镀锌板对无毛刺精密分切新工艺加工过程进行实验研究,分析塑性剪切压迫分离精密分切材料变形过程及板材受力特点;通过显微形貌观察,研究无毛刺精密分切新工艺分切断面的双塌角、双剪切区、中部剪切断裂区的形貌特征,并与传统圆盘剪分切工艺的分切断面特征进行对比。结果表明,采用塑性剪切压迫分离精密分切新工艺,可以消除分切毛刺从而提高金属带材的质量。     

Crack branching instability and directional stability in dynamic fracture of a tough bulk metallic glass

We report the ductile fracture behavior of a tough Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG) in the dynamic regime, where a rapid moving crack initiates by a Mode II shearing and then advances through plastic voids growth and linking. A clear fractographic evolution from river-like vein pattern to chevron-like zone where microscopic dimples and voids coexist, followed by crack microbranching pattern, was observed on the dynamic fracture surfaces. A terminal crack velocity of about 0.5 of the Rayleigh wave velocity was determined for the onset of such microbranching instability. Furthermore, the dynamic branched daughter cracks are favored to continue in their original mother crack plane, having “directional stability”. Our findings may increase the understanding of the dynamic fracture of BMGs with both glassy nature and metallic bonding character.     

Development of an analytical scheme to predict the need for tool regrinding in shearing processes

This paper describes an analytical scheme for the prediction of the tool wear and the need for tool regrinding in the sheet metal shearing process. The finite element program developed is used for the analysis of the shearing process in this study. In order to predict tool wear, Archard's wear model is reformulated in an incremental form and then the wear depth on the tool is calculated at each step in the deformation using the result of finite element analysis, taking consideration of the sliding velocity and normal pressure over the contact area. In general, the need for regrinding of the shearing tool is determined on the basis of allowable burr height on the final product. Therefore, based on this criterion, the analysis of the shearing process is iteratively performed using the worn profile on the tool in order to predict the need for tool regrinding. To analyze the quantitative wear of the tool, the parameters included in the wear model are determined by the result using a wear test, such as a pin-on-disk wear test for the material of the shearing tool and sheet metal. The effectiveness of the proposed scheme is verified by comparison with experimental results. It is shown that the simulation results are in good agreement with those obtained experimentally and the need for regrinding of the shearing tool can be determined for an allowable burr height.     

铬锰奥氏体不锈钢焊接开裂原因分析

针对201不锈钢焊接时出现的裂纹缺陷,通过化学成分分析、硬度分析和金相分析,找出了产生缺陷的原因是材料剪切过程中产生的加工硬化在焊接热应力作用下形成的,并从选材、剪切工艺和热处理工艺等方面提出了相应的改进措施。     

Micromechanism of Cleavage Fracture of Weld MetalsEI北大核心CSCD

Cleavage fracture is the most dangerous form of fracture. Cleavage fracture usually happens well before general yielding at low nominal fracture stress and strain. Cleavage fracture is often spurred by low temperature and determines the toughness in the lower shelf temperature region. This paper describes a new framework for the micromechanism of cleavage fracture of high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel weld metals. Cleavage fracture not only determines the impact toughness in the lower shelf but also plays a decisive role on the impact toughness in the transition temperature region. The toughness is determined by the extending length of a preceding fibrous crack which is terminated by cleavage fracture. Three non-stop successive stages, i.e. crack nucleation, propagation of a second phase particle-sized crack across the particle/grain boundary, propagation of a grain-sized crack across the grain/grain boundary are explained. The "critical event" of cleavage fracture is emphasized which offers the greatest difficulty during crack formation and controls the cleavage process. The critical event indicates the weakest microstructural component and its critical size which specifies the local cleavage fracture stress sigma(f) for cleavage fracture. In toughness-study it is paramount important to reveal the critical events for various test specimens. Three criteria for crack nucleation, for preventing crack nucleus from blunting and for crack propagation are testified. An active region specified by these criteria is suggested where the combined stress and strain are sufficient to trigger the cleavage fracture. It can be used in statistical analyses. A case study, using the new framework of micromechanism for analyzing toughness of 8% Ni steel welding metals is presented to analyze the experimental results.     

Ductile fracture model in the shearing process of zircaloy sheet for nuclear fuel spacer grids

Features of sheared edges are predicted based on material properties of Zircaloy obtained from the tensile test and ductile fracture model such as the Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman (GTN) and Johnson-Cook models. The sheared edges formations are numerically analyzed in each ductile model. An appropriate ductile fracture model is selected to study the relative depth of sheared edges with respect to process parameters. The tendency of failure parameters that are affected by sheared edges and fracture duration is investigated. We applied changes on parameters of failure models to show that the punch force curve and the ratio of characteristic lengths could be coincided, which led us to conclude that the GTN and Johnson-Cook models are equivalent. In the Johnson-Cook model, however, the characteristic length of the sheared edges does not change as each failure parameter reaches a critical value. Hence, the FE prediction model for forming defects is developed using the GTN failure model. Finally, the characteristic length of sheared edges have been measured using the FE prediction model for shearing process parameters such as punch velocities, clearance, and tool wear. Our results showed that the punch-die clearance is the most significant factor that affects forming defects when compared to other factors.     

Improving the sheared edge in the blanking of commercial AZ31 sheet through texture modification

Commercial rolled magnesium sheets of alloys AZ31 (Mg–3 mass%Al–1 mass%Zn) and ZE10 (Mg–1 mass% Zn–<1 mass% Rare Earths) in O-temper condition were used for blanking experiments near room temperature. A serrated fracture surface can be observed in case of AZ31 but not in case of ZE10. During the shearing process of the AZ31 sheet, many micro cracks parallel to the sheet plane are generated in the shearing zone. These micro cracks lead to the formation of loose particles during the shearing operation, which interfere with further processing of the part and incur additional costs by increasing the scrap rate.It is found that the strong basal texture of this alloy is an important reason for the generation of such serrated cracks. In this paper a new method of selective texture modification is described to locally change the mechanical properties of the AZ31 sheet. Subsequent shearing experiments show a significant change in the material behavior, especially regarding the direction of crack propagation, which leads to a better shearing performance. The commonly observed serrated crack does not occur any more after this local treatment and the sheared edge is clearly improved.     

Inkubationszeit und Rißverlauf bei der transkristallinen Spannungrißkorrosion austenitischer Chrom-Nickel-Stähle in Magnesiumchlorid-Lösungen

Incubation period and cracking progress during the transcrystalline stress corrosion cracking of austentitic chromium nickel steels in magnesium chloride solutions A very sensitive measuring method has enabled new details to be brought to light with respect to to the corrosion behavior of an austenitic steel. According to studies on a steel (German designation Werkstoff-Nr,1.4301) the stress corrosion cracking is a process in three stages, it is a creep stage proceeding apparently without perturbation, a period of discontinuous crack growth and finally a period of discontinuous crack growth. The duration of the incubation period which can be experimentally determined depends from the sensitivity of the measuring method; the ture incubation period, however, is always shorter than the experimentally determined value. The incubation period which is determined on the base of specimen elongation is followed by a discontinuous period characterized by crack-growth and subsequent repassivation and finally by a period with continuous crack growth. This behaviour can be interpreted in terms of the glide step-repassivation model.     

Effects of can parameters on canned-forging process of TiAl base alloy(Ⅰ)--Microstructural analyses

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TGO及初始裂纹对热障涂层裂纹形核与扩展影响的有限元分析

针对热障涂层系统裂纹的形核位置变化与扩展失效过程及其机理,提出采用内聚力单元分析热氧化物（TGO）层/陶瓷（TC）层界面裂纹的形核位置及扩展,采用扩展有限元法分析TGO层厚度、粗糙度以及TC初始裂纹对新TC、TGO裂纹形核位置及扩展的影响。结果表明:TGO/TC界面承受热循环载荷后,界面裂纹首先出现在近波峰处同时向两侧扩展;在冷却过程中,随着TGO初始厚度增加,TC裂纹的形核位置由波峰转向近波峰处而裂纹扩展长度没有明显变化,TGO裂纹形核位置不变但裂纹长度明显增加;随着TGO粗糙度的不断减小,TC裂纹形核位置由近波峰向中部转移,而裂纹扩展长度没有明显变化。当粗糙度减小到一定程度,TC裂纹被抑制。而TGO裂纹的形核位置没有变化,但裂纹扩展长度随着TGO粗糙度减小而增大;初始横向TC裂纹越长,TGO裂纹也越长。近波峰与中部的初始竖直TC裂纹能有效地抑制新的TC裂纹形核与扩展。本研究为热障涂层微裂纹失效机理提供了理论支撑。     

Life prediction of titanium MMCs under low-cycle fatigue

Low-cycle fatigue failure in titanium metal matrix composites is caused by two separate damage mechanisms: fatigue crack growth in the Ti matrix and fiber breakage. Here, a coupled numerical model for predicting both crack growth and fiber breakage is developed and applied to predict low-cycle fatigue lives in a SiC-fiber reinforced Ti matrix composite. A three-dimensional finite element model containing a matrix crack, nucleated on the first loading cycle in the reaction layer around a fiber, that is bridged by SiC fibers is used to calculate both the matrix crack tip stress intensity factor and the local fiber stress concentrations due to the matrix crack, as a function of the crack size. The crack tip stress intensity factor is used in a Paris-law model for the growth rate of the matrix crack. The local stress distributions in the fibers are used as the effective “applied” load within a three-dimensional Greens Function method that simulates the fiber damage process at any fixed fatigue crack size. Fiber failure preferentially occurs within the matrix crack region, where the fiber stresses are comparatively high, and composite failure occurs when the damage in this region is sufficient to drive fiber failure throughout the remainder of the composite in a crack-like fracture mode. A fatigue life threshold is predicted at about 80% of the quasistatic tensile strength, where the fiber bundle can survive even with a matrix crack extending throughout the entire cross-section. Predictions for the low-cycle fatigue of Ti-matrix (IMI834) reinforced with SCS-6 SiC fibers compare well with available experimental data at high stresses using pristine fiber strengths and no adjustable parameters. Using literature values for the fatigued fiber strength beyond 10⁴ cycles and no adjustable parameters, the experimental data are also well matched at lower stresses. The model demonstrates that fatigue life can be dependent on actual composite size and can be very sensitive to initial fiber damage.     

Damage mechanism of a nodular cast iron under the very high cycle fatigue regime

Fatigue behaviour in the very high cycle regime (VHCF) of 10¹⁰ cycles were investigated with a cast iron (GS51) under ultrasonic fatigue test system (20 kHz) in ambient air at room temperature with a stress ratio R = −1.

The influence of frequency was examined by comparing similar data generated on conventional servo hydraulic test systems. An advanced, high-speed, and high-sensitivity infrared imaging system was used to measure the temperature changes during ultrasonic fatigue test at various load levels caused by internal damping due to a very high frequency cycling. The temperature field on the surface specimen was determined by using a non-destructive measurement technique called infrared pyrometer. An infrared camera made up of a matrix of 320 × 240 detectors was used.

The S-N curves obtained show that fatigue failure occurred beyond 10⁹ cycles, fatigue limit does not exist for the cast iron and there is no evidence of frequency effect on the test results. A detailed study on fatigue specimens subjected to ultrasonic frequency shows that the temperature evolution of the cast iron specimen is very evident, the temperature increased just at the beginning of the test, the temperature increased depending on the maximum stress amplitude. Under the current test conditions, the high cycle fatigue (VHCF) behaviour of the cast iron exhibited a typical fatigue crack growth process, that is, fatigue initiation takes place always at the surface graphite or subsurface void; the distinctive stable fatigue crack growth zone can be found around the fatigue crack initiation site, the change of fatigue initiation site from surface to subsurface is associated with the complex effects of applied maximum stress level, surface condition.

Under lower stress amplitude and high cycle condition, surface graphite fatigue initiation is predominantly depended on cyclic stress amplitude; subsurface void fatigue initiation is determined by maximum cyclic stress.

In the process of small crack propagation, the temperature in local plastic zone increase very sharply. The temperature field of ultrasonic fatigue specimen can be changed with the cooling condition; internal heating can accelerate surface fatigue crack initiation and propagation.

Fatigue properties in VHCF regime were studied for cast iron (GS51) at 20 kHz frequency and for the first time, crack initiation and propagation stages were analyzed using a high-sensitivity infrared camera. The new Paris's model for fish eye formation in the gigacycle fatigue were also confirmed by this study.     

Oscillation overlaid shearing of sheet

One of the most frequently used sheet metal processing methods is shearing. While using the shearing method a cut edge is usually created which often clearly fails to meet the desired quality. The optimum cut edge quality is as rectangular and as burr-free as possible. Trials made at the IFUM showed, that the quality of cut edges can be improved by overlaying the movement of the punch with an oscillation. Through different test rows the mechanism and impact of oscillation on the shearing process are investigated. This paper reports about tensile and friction tests made on sheet metal with oscillation overlay, high speed cutting tests and test series with a new designed tool which allows stamping sheet metal also with an oscillation overlay. The test series show, that oscillation can have an effect on the tensile strength, friction and work hardening of sheet metal and as a result on the cutting force and the cut edge quality.     

Investigations of the shear behaviour of aluminium alloys

Shearing is particular economic for the production of forging raw parts but not implemented as an industrial production process because of insufficient shear qualities. To take advantage of the shearing of aluminium alloys, an experimental shear tool is developed. With this tool the fracture mechanism during the shearing process and the influencing parameters on the shear plane quality of aluminium alloys are investigated fundamentally. The considered influencing factors include especially the shear rate, the shear clearance and the microstructure of the raw part material. Those factors are investigated for several technically relevant alloys. The determination of the basic principles in combination with practical experiments allows an assessment of the shearing process for aluminium applications. Within the performed investigations, all considered experimental parameters show an effect on the shear quality. Particularly the shear clearance proves to be the most distinctive parameter to influence the result of the shear result.     

板材取样剪剪切过程数值模拟及实验研究

金属板材剪切过程是一种复杂的弹塑性大变形过程,本文根据板材剪切过程变形特点,利用ANSYS/LS - DYNA建立了金属板材取样剪剪切板材的有限元模型,进行了弹塑性有限元分析.通过仿真计算,获得了板材剪切过程的应力-应变状态,变形和力能参数,并在某钢铁集团公司取样剪上对剪切力进行了测试,结果表明,有限元模拟结果可靠,可作为取样剪的设计制造的依据.