Prevention of macrodefects in squeeze casting of an Al-7 wt pct Si alloy

The squeeze casting of an Al-7 wt pct Si alloy was carried out in order to investigate the conditions for the formation and the prevention of macrosegregation. The effects of process parameters such as applied pressure, die temperature, pouring temperature, delay time, degassing, and inoculation on the formation of macrosegregation were investigated, in correlation with the evolution of macrostructure and shrinkage defects. Three critical applied pressures were defined, based on the experimental results for the squeeze-cast Al-7 wt pct Si. The first is the critical applied pressure under which shrinkage defects form (P _SC). The second is the critical applied pressure above which macrosegregates form (P _MS). The third is the critical applied pressure above which and under which minor segregation forms. (P _m and P _MS, respectively). With the concept of these three critical pressures, an experimental diagram describing the optimum process conditions was proposed for obtaining sound squeeze castings. It was concluded that sound castings without macrosegregation and shrinkage defects can only be obtained when the applied pressure is in the range where P _SC < P<P _m (<P _MS). Both degassing and inoculation treatments greatly enhanced the soundness of the castings. It was also found that the pouring temperature and the delay time should not exceed T _D-critical and t _D-critical, respectively, in order to achieve sound castings.     

Microstructure and Corrosion Characterization of Squeeze Cast AM50 Magnesium Alloys

Squeeze casting of magnesium alloys potentially can be used in lightweight chassis components such as control arms and knuckles. This study documents the microstructural analysis and corrosion behavior of AM50 alloys squeeze cast at different pressures between 40 and 120 MPa and compares them with high-pressure die cast (HPDC) AM50 alloy castings and an AM50 squeeze cast prototype control arm. Although the corrosion rates of the squeeze cast samples are slightly higher than those observed for the HPDC AM50 alloy, the former does produce virtually porosity-free castings that are required for structural applications like control arms and wheels. This outcome is extremely encouraging as it provides an opportunity for additional alloy and process development by squeeze casting that has remained relatively unexplored for magnesium alloys compared with aluminum. Among the microstructural parameters analyzed, it seems that the β-phase interfacial area, indicating a greater degree of β network, leads to a lower corrosion rate. Weight loss was the better method for determining corrosion behavior in these alloys that contain a large fraction of second phase, which can cause perturbations to an overall uniform surface corrosion behavior.     

Effect of Pressure on Graphite Morphology and Mechanical Properties of Squeeze Cast Hyper-Eutectic Grey Cast Iron

Squeeze casting is a process in which a high external pressure is applied and maintained on the molten metal during the whole solidification process resulting in the lower porosity, higher solidification rate and improved mechanical properties. In this research, the effects of applied pressure on the morphology of graphite flakes in a squeeze cast hyper-eutectic grey cast iron were investigated. The molten grey cast irons were solidified under atmospheric pressure as well as 25, 50 and 75 MPa externally applied pressures. The results indicated that the pressure increase during solidification decreased the amount of free graphite flakes, reduced the size of pro-eutectic Kish graphite flakes and increased the density of the castings. D-type graphite enclosing austenite dendrites, resembling that expected in hypo-eutectic grey cast iron, was observed near the surfaces of the castings solidified under externally applied pressures. Moreover, some compacted and spheroidal graphite particles were observed in the castings solidified under 50 and 75 MPa pressures. Furthermore, by increasing the squeeze casting pressure from atmospheric pressure to 75 MPa, the hardness, ultimate tensile strength and elongation increased by about 13, 68 and 128%, respectively. The results have been discussed in terms of increased cooling rate, expected change in the phase diagram of the alloy, different atomic structure of the interfaces of graphite and austenite as well as some proposed theories for formation of eutectic cells and spheroidal graphite.     

间接挤压铸造工艺参数对铝合金中Si偏析的影响

研究间接挤压铸造工艺条件下,浇注温度、挤压压力、挤压速度、冷却速度及参数间的交互作用对6066铝合金中Si元素的偏析影响规律.以凝固后零件热节位置硅的质量分数与合金初始硅的质量分数的差值定量表征偏析程度,采用考虑一级交互作用的四因素两水平正交设计,研究间接挤压条件下硅的偏析现象.结果发现:浇注温度、挤压压力、挤压速度和冷却速度对硅偏析都有影响,其中浇注温度是影响最显著的因素.随着浇注温度的升高,铝合金中Si偏析程度减小.挤压压力和挤压速度对硅偏析的影响次之,但两者的影响趋势相反;模具冷却能力的影响程度与挤压压力和挤压速度的交互作用的影响程度相似,铜模套(高冷速)比钢模套(低冷速)的硅偏析程度要轻.间接挤压铸造条件下,工件热节位置可以出现硅的负偏析.      

The critical pressure and impeding pressure of Al evaporation during induction skull melting processing of TiAl

In this article, two key pressures, the critical pressure P _crit and the impeding pressure P _impe of elemental evaporation, are defined and studied based on the calculation relationship between the evaporation loss rate N _m and the chamber pressure P during melting of titanium-aluminum alloys. When the chamber pressure is below P _crit or above P _impe, N _m tends to the maximum or the minimum value and remains almost unchanged. However, if P _crit<P<P _impe, with the increase of the chamber pressure, N _m declines sharply. A method has been put forward to calculate P _crit and P _impe of Al evaporation in a Ti-XAl (at pct) (X=25 to 50) melt. The calculation result shows that P _crit or P _impe is a second-order function of the molar percentage of Al and the melt temperature.     

Influence of temperatures of melt overheating and pouring on the quality of aluminum alloy lost foam castings

Lost foam casting (LFC) is currently one of the most efficient and promising methods of fabricating high-quality thin-wall castings possessing specified dimensional accuracy, required surface roughness, and other properties. This technology is widely used in the production of aluminum alloy products. To minimize costs in the fabrication of wares and to fabricate high-quality castings, it is reasonable to use an increased amount of secondary materials in the charge, herewith paying attention to the melt overheating temperature and holding time. The results of studying the temperature modes of smelting pouring aluminum alloys in the LFC are presented. The most efficient modes in manufacturing conditions under consideration which provide the best quality characteristics of leak-tight castings by dimensional accuracy and surface roughness were as follows: the melt overheating temperature is 880–890°C and the melt pouring temperature into the casting mold is 820–830°C. The influence of various variants of temperature parameters of smelting and pouring the melt of the AK7 composition during the LFC on the content of nonmetallic inclusions in the cast state is investigated. It is revealed that the minimal γ-Al₂O₃ content in the final alloy is provided by a melt overheating temperature of up to 880–890 or 940–950°C and a melt pouring temperature into the casting mold of 820–830°C.     

Effects of squeeze casting on the properties of Zn-Bi monotectic alloy

In composite production, the shortest route is via an in situ composite in which a melt dissociates simultaneously into two rather different solid phases. The monotectic alloys can be included in this group. The present work was aimed at extending our recent squeeze casting experience on the Zn-Bi monotectic alloy in order to increase its cast quality and mechanical properties. A squeeze casting unit was built, and its die and punch were machined. The molten monotectic alloy was squeezed in this unit under pressures up to 120 MPa in its freezing range until it solidified completely. It was found that an increase in squeeze casting pressure provided increases in density, tensile strength, and Vickers hardness, which resulted in decreases in chip length and electrical resistivity. Before the squeeze casting practice, the freezing characteristics of this monotectic were estimated using basic solidification principles.     

Elimination of Hot Tears in Steel Castings by Means of Solidification Pattern Optimization

A methodology of how to exploit the Niyama criterion for the elimination of various defects such as centerline porosity, macrosegregation, and hot tearing in steel castings is presented. The tendency of forming centerline porosity is governed by the temperature distribution close to the end of the solidification interval, specifically by thermal gradients and cooling rates. The physics behind macrosegregation and hot tears indicate that these two defects also are dependent heavily on thermal gradients and pressure drop in the mushy zone. The objective of this work is to show that by optimizing the solidification pattern, i.e., establishing directional and progressive solidification with the help of the Niyama criterion, macrosegregation and hot tearing issues can be both minimized or eliminated entirely. An original casting layout was simulated using a transient three-dimensional (3-D) thermal fluid model incorporated in a commercial simulation software package to determine potential flaws and inadequacies. Based on the initial casting process assessment, multiobjective optimization of the solidification pattern of the considered steel part followed. That is, the multiobjective optimization problem of choosing the proper riser and chill designs has been investigated using genetic algorithms while simultaneously considering their impact on centerline porosity, the macrosegregation pattern, and primarily on hot tear formation.     

Modeling of macrosegregation caused by volumetric deformation in a coherent mushy zone

A two-phase volume-averaged continuum model is presented that quantifies macrosegregation formation during solidification of metallic alloys caused by deformation of the dendritic network and associated melt flow in the coherent part of the mushy zone. Also, the macrosegregation formation associated with the solidification shrinkage (inverse segregation) is taken into account. Based on experimental evidence established elsewhere, volumetric viscoplastic deformation (densification/dilatation) of the coherent dendritic network is included in the model. While the thermomechanical model previously outlined (M. M’Hamdi, A. Mo, and C.L. Martin: Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2002, vol. 33A, pp. 2081–93) has been used to calculate the temperature and velocity fields associated with the thermally induced deformations and shrinkage driven melt flow, the solute conservation equation including both the liquid and a solid volume-averaged velocity is solved in the present study. In modeling examples, the macrosegregation formation caused by mechanically imposed as well as by thermally induced deformations has been calculated. The modeling results for an Al-4 wt pct Cu alloy indicate that even quite small volumetric strains (≈2 pct), which can be associated with thermally induced deformations, can lead to a macroscopic composition variation in the final casting comparable to that resulting from the solidification shrinkage induced melt flow. These results can be explained by the relatively large volumetric viscoplastic deformation in the coherent mush resulting from the applied constitutive model, as well as the relatively large difference in composition for the studied Al-Cu alloy in the solid and liquid phases at high solid fractions at which the deformation takes place.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of squeeze cast and semi-solid cast Mg–Al alloys

Magnesium–aluminium castings produced by means of squeeze casting, new rheocasting and thixocasting have been investigated. These casting processes provide very different microstructures consisting of α-Mg and β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂. The shape and distribution of the brittle β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ has a large influence on mechanical properties. Isolated particles of β-phase in squeeze cast components are less detrimental to ductility than the continuous β-phase network found in semi-solid processed parts. A heat treatment results in complete dissolution of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ and accounts for significant improvements of ductility and fracture toughness. Crack propagation in solution heat treated Mg–Al castings is associated with extensive twinning.     

Solutal convection induced macrosegregation and the dendrite to composite transition in off-eutectic alloys

The effect of solute gradient induced convection during vertical solidification on the macrosegregation of Pb-rich Pb-Sn off-eutectic alloys is determined experimentally as a function of composition and growth rate. In many cases macrosegregation is sufficient to prevent the plane front solidification of the alloy. The transition from dendritic to composite structure is found to occur when the composition of the solid is close enough to the eutectic composition to satisfy a stability criterion based onG _L /V (liquid temperature gradient/growth rate). A vertical or horizontal magnetic field of 0.1 T (1 kilogauss) does not reduce macrosegregation, but downward solidification (liquid below solid) virtually eliminates macrosegregation in small (∼3 mm) diameter samples.     

Numerical simulation of Mo macrosegregation during ingot casting of high-Mo austenitic stainless steel

Mo macrosegregation was studied through the comparison of numerical simulation of the ingot pouring process and experiment on as-cast 500?kg high-Mo austenitic stainless steel ingot. The simulated results showed the evolution of temperature, melt velocity and the patterns of Mo macrosegregation, and revealed the effects of pouring temperature and cooling rate on macrosegregation. The predicted variation of Mo macrosegregation was compared with measurement values from an industrial ingot along the vertical centreline and horizontal direction. Severe normal and gravity segregation were observed. Although a basic agreement was obtained, the lack of a sufficiently fine numerical grid and the neglect of sedimentation for free equiaxed grains in the prediction brought about the absence of A-segregation and V-segregation. Further investigation would be needed to perform this investigation. The predicted results also confirmed that Mo macrosegregation in the ingot could be effectively diminished by improving cooling rate and decreasing pouring temperature.     

Kinetics of methane bubble growth in a 1020 steel

A 1020 carbon steel and a sensitive dilatometer have been used to study the changes in the kinetics, and morphology, of methane bubbles with temperature, methane pressure, and bubble size. The transition from roughly spherical bubbles at low methane pressure to lenticular ones at high pressure, as predicted by theory, has been demonstrated along with the predicted change in pressure exponent and activation energy. That is, at high pressures the rate of bubble growth increases as (P _{CH 4} ³ and exhibits an activation energy characteristic of surface diffusion, while at quite low pressures the pressure exponent is about 3/2 with an activation energy between that for grain boundary and lattice diffusion. When the lenticular bubbles grow to a diameter roughly equal to that of the grains, their growth kinetics change to be limited by the power law creep of the matrix.     

Convection and channel formation in solidifying Pb-Sn alloys

A suite of experiments on the dendritic solidification of Pb-Sn melts has been carried out. The first goal has been to quantify the longitudinal macrosegregation, and hence the convective vigor through the dendritic (“mushy”) zone during solidification, as a function of the mushy zone Rayleigh number. The mushy zone Rayleigh number Ra _m is a ratio of the driving compositional buoyancy force to the retarding Darcy frictional force. The second goal has been to characterize the formation of convection channels as a function of Ra _m . In a fixed furnace, the melts were program cooled and solidified from beneath, at various cooling rates. Two different temperature gradients were examined. Each pairing of cooling rate and temperature gradient results in a different Ra _m . As expected, the measured longitudinal macrosegregation increased with Ra _m . The vestiges of convection channels on a solidified ingot surface (which we call “freckle trails”) were observed for all conditions except for the most rapid cooling rate with the smaller temperature gradient (i.e., the smallest Ra _m ) and for the slowest cooling rate with the larger temperature gradient (i.e., the largest Ra _m ). Under the latter solidification conditions, the vestiges of convection channels in an ingot interior (which we call “chimneys”) were observed. Chimneys were not observed in other ingots. When present, the number of freckle trails decreased and the width of the trails increased with increasing Ra _m . The trails became more diffuse as well. It appears that Ra _m may control channel characteristics as well as convection and the resulting macrosegregation. There appear to be two critical values, a lower one for surface freckle trails and a higher one for interior chimneys. Conditions at the Earth’s inner-outer core boundary (ICB) may be those exhibiting high Ra _m convection, so that convection channels, if they exist, could be as large as several hundred meters in width.     

连铸控流模式对大方坯及棒材组织结构与宏观偏析影响

以中碳结构钢大方坯及其热轧棒材为研究对象,通过对铸坯和轧材进行低倍侵蚀和成分分析,揭示了连铸控流模式对大方坯凝固组织与宏观偏析分布特征的影响及其铸轧遗传性。研究表明:常规直通水口浇注模式下,结晶器电磁搅拌(Mold electromagnetic stirring, M-EMS)电流由0增加到800 A,铸坯等轴晶率由6.06%仅可增加到11.71%,难以有效避免大方坯常见的中心缩孔缺陷与突出的中心线偏析。采用新型五孔水口浇注模式,即使不开启M-EMS,铸坯中心等轴晶率仍可达23.1%,大方坯中心缩孔级别可降至1.0级以下,满足后续热轧大棒材探伤要求。同时发现,五孔水口浇注模式下,大方坯铸态组织中往往会出现较为明显的柱状晶到等轴晶转变(Columnar to equiaxed transition, CET)区,铸坯断面碳偏析指数呈M型分布,表现为断面1/4位置CET区域碳偏析指数最高。大棒材轧制基本改变不了铸坯断面宏观偏析的分布形态,且可能导致中心线偏析指数增加。同时指出,基于连铸控流模式的作用规律和铸?轧遗传性特征,以及特殊钢长材热加工对中心致密度和偏析分布与程度的要求,实际生产中应从连铸工艺源头合理地控制铸态组织与宏观偏析分布形态。      

The squeeze casting of hypoeutectic binary Al-Cu

A combination of thermocouple measurements, optical microscopy, and image analysis has been used to investigate the effects of applied pressure, melt temperature, mould insulation, and addition of grain refiner on the cooling/solidification behavior and resulting macro-and microstructure in squeeze cast Al-4.5 wt pct Cu ingots. Channel macrosegregates are formed in Al-4.5 wt pct Cu squeeze castings because of an increased rate of heat removal due to the application of pressure. The increased density of solute-rich liquid in the Al-Cu system causes channel segregates to form with a characteristic V pattern. Pressure and melt superheat increase the temperature gradients and cooling rate during squeeze casting but have only a minor effect upon the formation of channel segregates. The addition of grain refiner disperses but does not eliminate channel segregates. The application of pressure during squeeze casting changes the solidification behavior from mushy to near-plane front, leading to normal rather than inverse solute concentration profiles.     

Effect of Different Casting Parameters on the Cleanliness of High Manganese Steel Ingots Compared to High Carbon Steel

The increasing demand for excellent steel properties has led to the creation of new steel grades such as high manganese TWIP and TRIP steels which are scientifically examined in Germany within the international research framework of the SFB 761 “Steel-ab initio.” The production of these high-technology products, utilizing mainly the ingot-casting method, leads to new challenges in the prevention of cast defects. At RWTH Aachen University, a systematic investigation of the solidification process as it relates to shrinkage cavity, macrosegregation, cleanliness, and surface imperfections in as-cast ingots is being conducted. A particular attention was devoted to the effects of such casting parameters as superheat, pouring rate, hot top, and stirring conditions on the solidification and cleanliness of low carbon alloyed and high manganese alloyed steels. The experimental results show that rising manganese content leads to a higher amount and larger size of inclusions while rising carbon content enhances the inclusion generation in the same way. It was found that a bottom teeming system combined with an inert gas atmosphere produces the best quality and that if casting is performed with a runner-system, it is important to use a SiO₂-free refractory to avoid oxidizing the Mn content of the melt to MnO inclusions by redox-reactions.