Antioxidant activity of cookies and its relationship with heat-processing contaminants: a risk/benefit approach

Formation of both health promoting and potential harmful substances (acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural) has been associated to the extent of the Maillard reaction. The effects of recipe compositions in terms of leavening agent (ammonium and sodium bicarbonates) and sugars (sucrose and glucose), and baking conditions (temperature and time) on the antioxidant activity (AOA) in cookies were studied. The cookies were baked at different temperatures (180–220 °C) for different times (10–25 min). AOA was measured by the ferric reducing power (FRAP), 2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2,-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) coloured radicals, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC-fluorescein) in automated plate-reader assays. Net AOA varied regarding the assay applied, whereas higher AOA was always obtained for the ABTS assay and lower for DPPH assay, and ranging from 2 to 200 μmol Trolox/g sample. At higher temperature and baking times, higher AOA in cookies regardless of the formulation was recorded. Glucose enhances formation of compounds with higher AOA compounds as compared with sucrose recipes. Ammonium bicarbonate clearly promotes the formation of AOA for sucrose recipes but this effect is not observed in glucose recipes and varied with the AOA procedure applied. A risk/benefit index, based on the concomitant formation of neo-formed contaminants and substances with AOA (potentially health-promoting substances) is presented, and its application for recipe comparison is discussed. Risk/benefit index rapidly increased with increased temperature and time of baking.     

Comparison of the effects of sucrose and hexose on furfural formation and browning in cookies baked at different temperatures

The influence of the type of sugar and baking temperature on sugar degradation, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation and browning was studied in model cookies. The baking process was characterised by the temperature in the cookie and the water content and activity. A reference browning was selected to compare the differently processed cookies. The accumulation of HMF was modelled at three temperatures for three formulas (sucrose (S-CK), glucose (G-CK) or fructose (F-CK)). HMF started to accumulate at a_w between 0.5 and 0.7 depending on the temperature and followed a first order kinetic, highly dependent on the baking temperature and type of sugar. Cookies baked at 200 °C accumulated 10–100 times less HMF than those baked at higher temperatures. Below 250 °C, S-CK produced less HMF than G- or F-CK, but the inverse was observed at 300 °C.     

Effects of Dough Materials on Flavor Formation in Baked Cookies

The effects of dough materials on flavor formation in baked cookies were investigated in detail. The baked cookies were prepared from wheat flour, eggs, butter, sugar and sodium bicarbonate and heated at 150°C for 10 min. This dough was extracted with methanol/water (3:1,v/v) and the extracts were submitted to HPLC. The two main peaks, among 10 peaks detected, were identified as 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP) and 5-hydroxymethyl-furfural (HMF), respectively. DDMP seemed to be a key substance enhancing the good qualities of cookies with its favorable aroma. The generation of DDMP in baking was affected by the addition of proteins and amino acies, and among these, ovalbumin, proline, arginine and histidine strongly enhanced the DDMP generation.     

Effects of dough formula and baking conditions on acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural formation in cookies

The effects of dough formula and baking conditions on the formations of acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) were studied in a cookie model system. Increasing the sugar concentration in the dough formula increased acrylamide formation during baking at 205 °C for 11 min. The effect of sugar on acrylamide formation was more pronounced for glucose than for sucrose, expectedly. Addition of citric acid into dough formula comprising sucrose increased the susceptibility of acrylamide formation, while it decreased acrylamide formation in the dough formula comprising glucose. Decreasing the pH of dough formula increased the tendency to surface browning and the formation of hydroxymethylfurfural in cookies during baking. The results suggest that a cookie with acceptable texture and colour, but having less than 150 ng/g of acrylamide, can be manufactured by lowering the baking temperature and avoiding reducing sugars in the recipe.     

Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation during baking of biscuits: NaCl and temperature–time profile effects and kinetics

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of recipe and temperature–time on the formation of acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) during biscuit baking. Baking experiments were performed with biscuits of two different recipes, with and without NaCl, at 180 °C, 190 °C and 200 °C. Acrylamide and HMF reached highest concentrations at 200 °C for both recipes. The presence of NaCl in the biscuit formulation lowered acrylamide concentrations at 180 °C and 190 °C but not at 200 °C, and led to higher concentrations of HMF at all the tested temperatures. Sucrose hydrolysis was a key step in acrylamide and HMF formation during biscuit baking, even though a significant amount of acrylamide already had formed before the onset of sucrose hydrolysis. A lag phase was observed before sucrose hydrolysis occurred, which might depend on the melting of crystalline sucrose occurring at approximately 180 °C.A mathematical model based on the chemical reaction pathways was developed for the recipe with NaCl baked at 200 °C. The model described the chemical evolution during the last part of biscuit baking, and accurately predicted acrylamide and HMF content at the end of baking. The model showed the significant contribution of the reducing sugars to the formation of both acrylamide and HMF. The model could not be extended to the entire baking period because it was not possible to incorporate the lag phase observed before sucrose hydrolysis. The results reported in this study confirm that the kinetics of acrylamide and HMF formation in real food and dry systems may depend on the physical state of their precursors.     

Preservation of Cocoa Antioxidant Activity, Total Polyphenols, Flavan-3-ols, and Procyanidin Content in Foods Prepared with Cocoa Powder

ABSTRACT:  Little is known about the effects of common cooking processes on cocoa flavanols. Antioxidant activity, total polyphenols (TP), flavanol monomers, and procyanidin oligomers were determined in chocolate frosting, a hot cocoa drink, chocolate cookies, and chocolate cake made with natural cocoa powder. Recoveries of antioxidant activity, TP, flavanol monomers, and procyanidins ranged from 86% to over 100% in the chocolate frosting, hot cocoa drink, and chocolate cookies. Losses were greatest in the chocolate cake with recoveries ranging from 5% for epicatechin to 54% for antioxidant activity. The causes of losses in baked chocolate cakes were investigated by exchanging baking soda with baking powder or combinations of the 2 leavening agents. Use of baking soda as a leavening agent was associated with increased pH and darkening color of cakes. Losses of antioxidant activity, TP, flavanol monomers, and procyanidins were associated with an increased extractable pH of the baked cakes. Chocolate cakes made with baking powder for leavening resulted in an average extractable pH of 6.2 with essentially complete retention of antioxidant activity and flavanol content, but with reduced cake heights and lighter cake color. Commercially available chocolate cake mixes had final pHs above 8.3 and contained no detectable monomeric flavanols after baking. These results suggest that baking soda causes an increase in pH and subsequent destruction of flavanol compounds and antioxidant activity. Use of an appropriate leavening agent to moderate the final cake pH to approximately 7.25 or less results in both good leavening and preservation of cocoa flavanols and procyanidins.     

Gas sources in chemical leavening and other baker’s yeast substitutes: lessons from patents and science

Baker’s yeast produces carbon dioxide during dough fermentation, which gives bakery foods with expanded volume. This review covers gas sources other than baker’s yeast according to information disclosed in patents and supported by scientific literature. Inventors had more interest in gas injection in dough, mainly carbon dioxide, than gas-releasing agents available in chemical leavening, so-called baking powder, with 58 and 43 patented inventions, respectively. For chemical leavening, 20 gas-releasing agents were proposed, including 11 patented and 9 non-patented agents like sodium bicarbonate, the most popular. Other gas-releasing agents included miscellaneous salts of carbonate and bicarbonate (ammonium; calcium; magnesium; potassium) as well as compounds like hydrogen peroxide and, more recently, glutamic acid. Coatings were patented to protect sodium bicarbonate towards moisture and delay its action in dough. Recent trends include aerosol dough and flavourful sodium-free gas-releasing agents.     

3种添加物抑制模拟体系中羟甲基糠醛(HMF)的形成

根据羟甲基糠醛(HMF)形成途径,首先在由其不同反应前体物质构成的模拟反应体系中,研究了碳酸氢钠、碳酸氢铵、食盐、硫酸铝钾和硫酸铝铵对各体系中HMF形成的影响。结果表明:当碳酸氢钠和碳酸氢铵添加量为2.00mg/m L时,美拉德、果糖反应体系中HMF的生成量均显著下降,分别为5.01、3.02 mg/L和3.30、17.52 mg/L;在美拉德、葡萄糖、果糖和蔗糖反应体系中添加0.60 mg/mL硫酸铝钾时,体系中的HMF均明显增高,分别为80.53、13.02、265.02和310.11 mg/L,最大增幅为对照组的620.26倍;而硫酸铝铵处理组HMF的增幅可高达197.00倍。而后考察了5种添加物对饼干中HMF的影响,证实碳酸氢钠、碳酸氢铵和食盐显著降低了饼干中的HMF含量,最大降幅为35.34%。然而,即使在添加了食盐、碳酸氢钠和碳酸氢铵的情况下,硫酸铝钾和硫酸铝铵(0.10 g/80.00 g面粉)仍使饼干中HMF含量增加62.41%和55.64%。综上所述,碳酸氢钠、碳酸氢铵和食盐在模拟体系和饼干中显著减少HMF形成;硫酸铝钾和硫酸铝铵则大幅增加HMF生成量。结果进一步支持了国家限制含铝膨松剂使用的合理性。     

Accumulation of 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural in cookies during the backing process: Validation of an extraction method

During baking, complex chemical reactions take place in the cookies, such as the Maillard reaction (MR) and caramelisation (CR). Both reactions involve glucose and fructose, generated from starch and sucrose hydrolysis during baking. Among the many products formed, HMF a possible mutagen, seems particularly interesting because of a rapid accumulation during the process.     

Reducing the acrylamide content of a semi-finished biscuit on industrial scale

The baking agent, reducing sugars and organic acids are the ingredients that most influence the acrylamide formation in sweet bakery. Various experiments focusing on these components were performed with biscuits on industrial scale. The replacement of ammonium hydrogencarbonate by sodium hydrogencarbonate reduced the acrylamide content by about 70%. The use of a sucrose solution instead of inverted sugar syrup had a similar effect. Addition of some extra tartaric acid reduced the acrylamide content by about one-third. The positive effects on the acrylamide content were still observed after a second baking process. These results show that mitigation in industry-scale based on the optimization of baking agent, reducing sugars, and organic acid is feasible and compliant to high-quality standards.     

A new approach to evaluate the risk arising from acrylamide formation in cookies during baking: Total risk calculation

From a food engineering point of view, a viable approach in evaluating the risk related to acrylamide formation in heated foods is still lacking. In this study, thermal process calculation procedure used to evaluate safe levels of microbial inactivation by means of time-temperature history of the product during processing was adapted to evaluate the risk associated with acrylamide formation in cookies during baking. The rate constants were determined in model cookies during baking at different temperatures. For a risk threshold value of 200 ppb of acrylamide, thermal formation times were calculated as 6.29, 0.20 and 0.03 min for 150, 200 and 250 °C, respectively. The F and z values were determined as 0.20 min and 30 °C, respectively, for acrylamide formation in cookies during baking. Calculated total risk values compared well with experimentally measured acrylamide concentrations of cookies baked under different conditions confirming the success of risk evaluation procedure.     

Effect of Steam Baking on Acrylamide Formation and Browning Kinetics of Cookies

Abstract: Effects of baking method and temperature on surface browning and acrylamide concentration of cookies were investigated. Cookies were baked in natural and forced convection and steam‐assisted hybrid ovens at 165, 180, and 195 °C and at different times. For all oven types, the acrlyamide concentration and surface color of cookies increased with increasing baking temperature. Significant correlation was observed between acrylamide formation and browning index, BI, which was calculated from Hunter L, a, and b color values, and it showed that the BI may be considered as a reliable indicator of acrylamide concentration in cookies. Acrylamide formation and browning index in cookies were considered as the first‐order reaction kinetics and the reaction rate constants, k, were in the range of 0.023 to 0.077 (min^?1) and 0.019 to 0.063 (min^?1), respectively. The effect of baking temperature on surface color and acrylamide concentration followed the Arrhenius type of equation, with activation energies for acrylamide concentration as 6.87 to 27.84 kJ/mol; for BI value as 19.54 to 35.36 kJ/mol, for all oven types. Steam‐assisted baking resulted in lower acrylamide concentration at 165 °C baking temperature and lower surface color for all temperatures. Steam‐assisted baking is recommended as a healthy way of cooking providing the reduction of harmful compounds such as acrylamide for bakery goods, at a minimal level, while keeping the physical quality. Practical Application: The kinetics of acrylamide formation and browning of cookies will possibly allow definition of optimum baking temperatures and times at convectional and steam‐assisted baking ovens. The kinetic model can be used by developing baking programs that can automatically control especially a new home‐scale steam‐assisted hybrid oven producing healthy products, for the use of domestic consumers.     

EFFECT OF SODIUM METABISULFITE ADDITION AND BAKING TEMPERATURE ON MAILLARD REACTION IN BREAD

ABSTRACT

In this study, the effect of sodium metabisulfite (SMBS) doses (0, 25, 50, 100 mg/kg dough) and baking temperatures (200, 230 and 250C) on the physical, chemical and sensory properties of bread were researched to reduce 5‐hydroxymethyl‐2‐furfural (HMF) and acrylamide contents. HMF and acrylamide contents of bread crust were decreased significantly by increasing SMBS dose and decreasing baking temperature. The HMF (137.29 mg/kg) and acrylamide (671.44 µg/kg) contents of bread crust were decreased by 33 and 67%, respectively by addition of 100 mg/kg SMBS. The maltol content of bread crusts were significantly affected by baking temperature, and were 7.19, 10.23 and 22.69 mg/kg in breads baked at 200, 230 and 250C, respectively. No HMF, acrylamide and maltol were detected in the bread crumb. The sulfur dioxide content of the crust and crumb of control bread was 6.99 and 10.69 mg/kg, and increased by 49 and 59%, respectively at 100 mg/kg SMBS dose. All breads were evaluated as acceptable by a sensory panel.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Since Maillard reaction products such as acrylamide and 5‐hydroxymethyl‐2‐furfural (HMF) are known as toxic compounds, mitigation of these compounds is important subject for health and nutrition. There is not an efficient method to prevent the formation of acrylamide and HMF in bread crusts comparison with potato crisps. The purpose of this research is to slow down Maillard reaction by addition of sodium metabisulfite in bread‐making process. As a result of this research, acrylamide and HMF content of bread crusts decreased by 33 and 67%, respectively with acceptable sensory evaluation.     

Acrylamide formation in a cookie system as influenced by the oil phenol profile and degree of oxidation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the olive oil phenolic compounds as well as of thermoxidised oil on the formation of acrylamide in a cookies system. Three virgin olive oils having different phenolic profile and a thermoxidised sunflower oil were selected. Cookies were baked at 190 °C for different times (8–16 min) following a basic recipe where type of oil was the variable. Additionally to acrylamide (AA), other parameters such as colour, moisture, antioxidant activity (AOA), and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) were measured. Results showed that concentration and composition of phenolic moiety of virgin olive oil significantly affect the acrylamide formation, particularly at prolonged baking time. Virgin olive oil with a higher dihydroxy/monohydroxy ratio was more efficient in the AA mitigation and AA was reduced up to 20%. Colour and AOA were not significantly different among the three types of oils. However, AA is dramatically increased when thermoxidised oil is used with a parallel increase of browning and HMF. It was concluded that lipid oxidation products should be considered as an important factor in acrylamide formation during baking of fat-rich products.     

Evaluation and comparison of different dough leavening agents on quality of lavash bread

Dough preparation process is an important stage of bread production which has a significant effect on quality of the end product. Bakery yeast, sourdough and chemical leavening agents are used as leavening agents for the treatment of dough for bread. In this study, bakery yeast, sourdough, sodium bicarbonate and combination of bakery yeast and sodium bicarbonate were used for the production of flat bread (lavash). The firmness of lavash bread texture was analyzed using a texture analyzer device and bread staling at 24, 48 and 72 h after baking was analyzed using DSC device. Also, microstructure of bread was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results of DSC showed that bread produced with combination of bakery yeast and sodium bicarbonate, had lower enthalpy (279.84 ± 70.47 J/g) and staling than the other samples. Also, hardness of this sample was low (7.608 ± 0.892 N). The images obtained from SEM showed that diameter of gas bubbles in the bread produced with bakery yeast and combination of bakery yeast and sodium bicarbonate, were higher and their cell walls were thinner.     

Inventions on phosphates for chemical leavening

Baking powders contain leavening acids that activate gas-releasing agents such as sodium bicarbonate. This is a review of the patent literature on phosphate-based leavening acids developed between 1856 and 2019. Overall, 174 patented inventions were found on 28 phosphate-based compounds, which corresponded to more than half of the inventions disclosed on leavening acids. Inventors had a strong interest in monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate and, to a lesser extent, sodium aluminium phosphate and miscellaneous acid phosphates. As cheap alternatives to tartrates, most early phosphate-based leavening acids were difficult to keep because they had a high affinity for moisture and tended to react prematurely with gas-releasing agents in baking powders. The evolution of phosphates in chemical leavening reflected changes in the consumption of bakery foods, especially in the United States where chemical leavening has been very popular for food preparations like prepared flours, ready-to-use bakery mixes and refrigerated doughs. Sodium-free phosphates are solutions to reduce salt intake in food. Alternatives to phosphates are searched due to potential health issues.     

马铃薯鲜薯酥脆饼干的配方优化

以马铃薯鲜薯为主要原料,采用二步焙烤工艺制备马铃薯酥脆饼干,研究马铃薯泥与低筋面粉比例、碳酸氢铵与小苏打比例、鸡蛋液与棕榈油比例等三个因素对饼干剪切力、色差和感官品质的影响。结果表明,马铃薯泥与低筋面粉比例为13:2、碳酸氢铵与小苏打比例为5:2、鸡蛋液与棕榈油比例为5:5时,马铃薯饼干的剪切力在2000～2500g、色泽适中、感官评分高于80分。在此基础上,通过三因素三水平响应面优化试验得到饼干的最优配方为:马铃薯泥55.00%、低筋面粉20.00%、碳酸氢铵0.50%、小苏打0.13%、鸡蛋液6.86%、棕榈油5.00%、糖霜6.82%、淡奶油5.69%。此配方下的马铃薯鲜薯酥脆饼干具有良好的马铃薯风味,口感酥脆,品质优良,感官评分为87.20,与响应面模型预测值符合。本研究可为马铃薯烘焙产品的发展提供理论依据。     

Effect of using Erythritol as a Sucrose Replacer in Making Spanish Muffins Incorporating Xanthan Gum

Spanish muffins are sweet, high-calorie baked products which are highly appreciated for their good taste and soft texture. The aim of this work was to evaluate the suitability of erythritol and of its combination with xanthan gum and double quantities of leavening agent for replacing sucrose in Spanish muffins and to understand their functionality in a muffin system. The linear viscoelastic properties of the batter during heating, its specific gravity and bubbles, muffin weight loss during baking and muffin bubbles, height, volume, and instrumental texture were studied. Both erythritol and sucrose increase in the temperature at which the viscoelastic functions increased with temperature. In comparison with the reduced sucrose muffins, the use of erythritol increased the number of air bubbles in the batter. The height of the muffins also increased in the presence of erythritol when compared to the corresponding reduced sucrose muffins, although the volume did not. Erythritol was not effective in diminishing the increased hardness associated with sucrose reduction, but the combination of erythritol with xanthan gum and a double quantity of leavening agent significantly improved the muffin volume (from 94 cm³ for 100% erythritol formulation to 108 cm³ for 100% erythritol–xanthan double-leavening agent formulation) and significantly decreased the hardness (from 75 N for 100% erythritol formulation to 25 N for 100% erythritol–xanthan double leavening agent formulation).     

Mitigation of acrylamide formation in cookies by using Maillard reaction products as recipe modifier in a combined partial conventional baking and radio frequency post-baking process

This study aimed to mitigate acrylamide formation in cookies by lowering thermal energy input along with certain recipe modifications. Lowering temperature required longer cooking times as expected in order to achieve desired final moisture content. To shorten cooking time, conventional baking was combined with radio frequency post-baking process. Lack of development of surface browning in cookies during lower-temperature baking could be overcome by adding the Maillard reaction products (MRP) into dough. The MRP used to modify dough was prepared by heating a binary mixture of arginine and glucose at 100?°C for 6?h or by overbaking thin dough-layered disks. In comparison with control cookie baked at 205?°C for 11?min, combined conventional baking (205?°C for 8?min) and radio frequency post-drying process (45?s) decreased acrylamide formation in biscuits by up to 50?%. The use of Maillard reaction products to improve the visual acceptability of cookies to the consumer may have applications in food industry.     

蛋糕复合膨松剂的研制

在酸碱平衡的基础上，以NaHCO3、KAISO4·12H2O、Ca（H2PO4）2·H2O为主要成份，研制了一种蛋糕专用复用膨松剂。通过正交试验确定了复合膨松剂的配比及与膨松剂使用效果密切相关的两个重要工艺参数：烘烤工艺条件和加水量。