Characterization of fretting fatigue crack initiation processes in CR Ti–6Al–4V

A study was conducted to quantify fretting fatigue damage and to evaluate the residual fatigue strength of specimens subjected to a range of fretting fatigue test conditions. Flat Ti–6Al–4V specimens were tested against flat Ti–6Al–4V fretting pads with blending radii at the edges of contact. Fretting fatigue damage for two combinations of static average clamping stress and applied axial stress was investigated for two percentages of total life. Accumulated damage was characterized using full field surface roughness evaluation and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effect of fretting fatigue on uniaxial fatigue strength was quantified by interrupting fretting fatigue tests, and conducting uniaxial residual fatigue strength tests at R=0.5 at 300 Hz. Results from the residual fatigue strength tests were correlated with characterization results.While surface roughness measurements, evaluated in terms of asperity height and asperity spacing, reflected changes in the specimen surfaces as a result of fretting fatigue cycling, those changes did not correspond to decreases in residual fatigue strength. Neither means of evaluating surface roughness was able to identify cracks observed during SEM characterization. Residual fatigue strength decreased only in the presence of fretting fatigue cracks with surface lengths of 150 μm or greater, regardless of contact condition or number of applied fretting fatigue cycles. No cracks were observed on specimens tested at the lower stress condition. Threshold stress intensity factors were calculated for cracks identified during SEM characterization. The resulting values were consistent with the threshold identified for naturally initiated cracks that were stress relieved to remove load history effects.     

Metallographic analysis of fretting fatigue damage in Ti-6Al-4V MA and 7075-T6 aluminum

Fretting fatigue tests were conducted utilizing axial fatigue load application at various maximum fatigue stress levels and normal pressures. Materials investigated were titanium Ti-6A1-4V mill annealed (MA) and aluminum 7075-T6. Subsequent to testing, the specimens were sectioned and metallographically examined to investigate the relationship between fretting damage, fretting induced cracking and reduction of specimen fatigue life.At all maximum fatigue stress levels investigated a given amount of fretting damage was required before any fatigue life reduction occurred. Presumably, the damage leads to the development of cracks in the fretted areas. Metallographie studies of the fretted areas have revealed that multiple cracks form and are propagated by fatigue. Some evidence was found to indicate that fretting debris is forced into the microcracks as they develop, thus explaining, in part, the significant reduction in life caused by the fretting.     

A fretting-fatigue damage threshold concept

Fretting fatigue studies were conducted on Ti-6Al-4V and 7075-T6 aluminum specimens cycled in axial fatigue loading at a fatigue ratio (R) of +0.1. Axial fatigue loading was applied at a frequency of 30 Hz in a laboratory environment with the fretting applied to the specimen central section through a fretting pad made of the same material as the fatigue specimen. Tests were conducted at various maximum axial fatigue loads and normal pressures.The fretting damage that occurred resulted in a significant reduction in fatigue life. The reduction in fatigue strength was greater for both materials studied in the long life region. A fretting fatigue damage threshold that results from the fretting was found to exist for both materials. At all load levels a given amount of fretting damage is required before any fatigue life reduction occurs. Presumably the damage leads to the development of cracks in the fretted areas. The concept of the fretting damage threshold is related to the development of an initial crack that causes the local stress intensity to exceed the threshold value at a much smaller number of applied cycles. Thus, the concepts of fracture mechanics are related to the “initiation” of fretting damage.     

钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命预测研究*

钢丝微动疲劳过程中,钢丝裂纹萌生特性直接影响其裂纹扩展特性,进而制约钢丝微动疲劳寿命,因此开展钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命预测研究具有重要意义。基于有限元法、摩擦学理论和断裂力学理论,运用Smith-Watson-Topper（SWT）多轴疲劳寿命准则建立考虑磨损的钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命预测模型,基于多种不同的钢丝疲劳参数估算方法对钢丝的微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命进行了预测,并探究接触载荷、疲劳载荷、交叉角度及钢丝直径等微动疲劳参数对钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命的影响规律。结果表明：基于中值法的预测结果最接近实际值;在微动疲劳过程中,钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命主要与接触载荷和疲劳载荷相关。通过引入微动损伤参数建立简化的适用于钢丝绳的钢丝微动疲劳裂纹萌生寿命预测模型,通过与考虑磨损的预测模型计算结果进行对比验证了该模型的准确性。     

圆弧端齿结构微动疲劳试验加载装置的设计及实现

针对圆弧端齿结构三维微动疲劳试验难度大、成本高等问题,提出了一种二维等效加载方案,设计并实现了微动疲劳试验加载装置,建立了二维结构微动疲劳试验模型。对典型圆弧端齿结构的二维等效试件进行了微动疲劳试验,发现疲劳裂纹萌生于接触面的接触边缘,接触面出现大量微动磨屑,为典型的微动疲劳失效形式。试验结果表明,该微动疲劳试验加载装置可满足端齿结构微动疲劳试验要求,为微动损伤机理分析和微动疲劳寿命预测提供了试验数据支持。     

Initiation and propagation of fretting fatigue cracks

Fretting fatigue tests of a carbon steel were carried out. Fatigue cracks were measured by means of electrical resistance and observed with a scanning electron microscope. The mechanism of fretting fatigue failure is discussed from the experimental results. Small fatigue cracks are initiated early in life and some grow to be propagating cracks. Cracks grow to a given depth by tangential stress combined with repeated stress and then propagate with repeated stress alone, causing a knee point in the propagation curve. Fretting fatigue damage is saturated in the first 20–25 % of life which coincides with the knee point. The condition of non-propagating cracks is also known.     

Fretting of glass

Fretting damage to a glass surface in contact with a steel ball was investigated. In the initial stage of fretting, severe wear occurred on the steel ball and considerable wear debris was transferred to the glass surface. The coefficient of friction increased during this stage by 80%. Fatigue cracks were observed on the glass surface under conditions of high normal load and tangential force. The mechanism of fretting fatigue and fretting wear is discussed in relation to a brittle material. Finally the effect of thin metal foil inserts in reducing fretting damage is described.     

Fretting wear behaviors of steel wires under friction-increasing grease conditions

Fretting wear tests were performed on the self-made fretting wear rig to investigate fretting wear behaviors of steel wires under friction-increasing grease conditions. The results demonstrated that the fretting regimes were dependent on displacement amplitudes and normal loads. The friction coefficient exhibited different variation trends in different fretting regimes. Friction-increasing grease changed the fretting running behavior and had a very good wear resistance for steel wires. Wear was slight in partial slip regime. Mixed regime was characterized by plastic deformation, fatigue cracks and abrasive wear. Slip regime presented main damage mechanisms of abrasive wear, fatigue wear and oxidation.     

The effect of rubber contact on the fretting fatigue strength of railway wheel tire

The cause of the ICE train derailment, which occurred in 1998 at Eschede, was fatigue failure originating on the inside of the wheel tire. Rubber-sprung resilient wheels were used for the trailer cars. The wheel tire is mounted on the wheel disc. Thirty-four rubber pads were arranged between the wheel disc and the wheel tire. It was postulated that fretting fatigue between the rubber block and the inner side of the tire might have an influence on the initiation of the incipient crack. In order to clarify the influence of the rubber contact on the fatigue strength of the tire, fretting fatigue experiments under rubber contact conditions were performed. During the fundamental fretting fatigue test using bridge pads and small size carbon steel specimens, no typical fretting damage such as fretting wear and minute cracks were observed due to contact of the rubber. Stress conditions of the rubber-sprung wheel under vertical and lateral wheel loads were evaluated by a three-dimensional elastic stress analysis. Since the rubber is a super-elastic material, the Mooney-Rivlin model was used in the FEM calculation. It was found that the wheel tire is subjected to a cyclic stress during one revolution of the wheel and the maximum stress occurred at the center of the inner surface of the tire where the fatigue crack initiated. Fatigue strength of the wheel tire was determined by the rotating bending fatigue testing of specimens taken from the tire. It was found that the tire with an 862 mm diameter at a wheel load of 80 kN had a safety factor more than 3.5 from a fatigue limit diagram with a failure probability of 0.01. To confirm the fretting damage under the rubber contact and the result of the fatigue strength evaluation, fatigue tests of a full size wheel were made. After 20 million cycles at the wheel load of 280 kN, which was just below the endurance limit estimated by the endurance limit diagram, no fretting damage and no fatigue cracks were observed. The wheel was, however, fractured at 1.56 million cycles under the maximum load of 308 kN, which was just above the endurance limit. The estimation of the safety factor of 3.5 estimated from the endurance diagram was confirmed by the full size fatigue testing. It was concluded that there was no effect of fretting due to the rubber contact on the fatigue strength of the rubber-sprung single-ring railway wheel.     

Characterization of fretting fatigue damage by SEM analysis

Since the earliest studies of fretting fatigue were initiated surface damage and debris produced during the process have been of particular concern. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) has proven to be a useful tool in the analysis of fretting damage mechanisms and their relationship to the degradation of fatigue properties. Results of analysis performed on fatigue specimens which have undergone simultaneous fretting damage and fatigue are presented.The results show that irreparable damage was not produced during the first fatigue cycles. Damage also was classified as initial or advanced by characteristic debris and surface appearance. Fretting damage produced at high fatigue stress was found to be similar in appearance to damage produced at low fatigue stress. Details of the damage and its relationship to the fretting process are discussed in the paper in some depth.     

铝合金压印接头微动疲劳机理研究

压印连接是近年来新兴的连接方式,因其具有简单高效、低耗环保等优点,使得在应用连接方面越来越受到重视。疲劳破坏是机械构件失效的主要形式,疲劳过程中的微动磨损是造成零部件失效的主要原因之一。基于以上条件,对铝合金压印接头的疲劳性能进行了试验研究,结果显示疲劳失效部位主要集中在下板靠近压印点处,断口处发现大量微动磨屑,经能谱分析可以确定磨屑成分主要为氧化铝和金属铝;对疲劳失效断口和微动磨损区域进行了扫描电镜分析,发现压印接头的微动磨损部位主要分为两类,并对其进行了定义,一类定义为颈部微动磨损,另一类定义为环点板间微动磨损。分析发现颈部微动磨损所占比例随着外加载荷的大小而变化,且微动磨损是导致压印接头疲劳失效的重要因素。     

Fretting fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior of Inconel 690 alloy

Several studies have been conducted on the fretting fatigue limit characteristics of Inconel alloy tube material used in steam generators of nuclear power plants. Nevertheless, additional research on fretting fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior is necessary in order to evaluate its fretting fatigue life more accurately. In this study, crack growth tests of fretting fatigue are conducted, and the characteristics of fatigue crack initiation and propagation are analyzed on Inconel 690 alloy. Also, plain fatigue crack growth tests are performed on the same material, and the results are compared with those of fretting fatigue crack growth tests. From both of the plain and fretting fatigue crack growth test results, the ΔK-da/dN diagrams are obtained and the crack growth rates are compared. It is found that the crack growth rate for fretting fatigue tests is faster than that for plain fatigue tests under a certain value of DK. However, over this value of DK, the crack growth rate for fretting fatigue tests becomes slower than that for plain fatigue tests due to debris which is produced by fretting and trapped in the propagated cracks. Finally, the fracture surfaces examined by an optical microscope, and the initiation angles of the oblique cracks are determined under various applied stresses. Also, the microstructure of the fracture surfaces is observed by a Scanning electron microscopy (SEM).     

Comments on the limitation of the Reynolds equation for porous thrust bearings

Fractographic studies have been conducted on fretting fatigue test specimens made of 7075-T7351 aluminum alloy. Growth rates of fretting fatigue cracks as determined from striation spacings were much higher than would be expected for this alloy based on the cyclic stresses alone. The results indicate that in the early stages of crack growth fretting acts to increase the effective stress intensity factor range, thus greatly accelerating crack propagation rates. However, a full understanding of the early stages of fretting crack growth will also depend upon knowledge of the behavior of short (about 100 μm) fatigue cracks in general.     

Fretting fatigue in 2XXX series aerospace aluminium alloys

This research investigated the effects of microstructural characteristics on the fretting response in 2XXX series aerospace aluminium alloys. Fretting fatigue tests were conducted to determine the influence of slip character, alloy purity, grain structure and yield strength on fretting crack nucleation and growth. Crack length measurements and micrographs of the specimens indicated there was no significant difference in the fretting response of these alloys based on their microstructural characteristics. Results also showed that fretting caused cracks to nucleate in the first 1–5% of total life which resulted in much shorter fatigue lives. Additionally, fretting normalized the nucleation time in all alloys, eliminating the differences in intrinsic fatigue nucleation resistance. This resulted in the alloys with the highest stress-life (S–N) fatigue properties exhibiting a greater reduction in fatigue strength under fretting conditions. The total fretting fatigue life appeared to be primarily determined by the fatigue crack propagation resistance of the alloys.     

Progression of fretting fatigue damage in Ti–6Al–4V

An investigation was conducted to explore the nature of fretting fatigue damage in the stages prior to crack formation. In the unique experimental apparatus employed in this study, where total slip never occurs, several locations on each test specimen exist where cracks can develop due to local contact conditions. Under the test conditions used, not all of the sites had cracks upon test completion. This study evaluated the condition of non-cracked sites on several fretted specimens in an effort to identify differences between these and sites where small cracks were observed.A single test condition of 620 MPa average applied static clamping stress and 250 MPa applied axial fatigue stress for R=0.5 was selected, which corresponds to a fretting fatigue life of 10⁷ cycles based on prior work. For specimens tested to 10⁶ cycles, or 10% of life, several destructive and non-destructive characterization methods were chosen: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), residual stress measurement and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Each site at which crack nucleation could be expected was inspected in the SEM and was then characterized using surface X-ray diffraction to quantify the residual stresses field near that location. Then TEM foils were cut from one area on a specimen with tiny cracks and dislocation densities were observed. A novel technique was used which permitted TEM samples to be obtained from regions in close proximity on the original specimen.Comparisons were made between as-received (AR) and stress-relief annealed (SRA) specimens, on which the stress-relief was applied prior to fretting fatigue testing. SEM inspection was useful for qualitative analysis of wear debris and identification of cracks as small as 20 μm, but was unable to provide quantitative data on the level of fretting fatigue damage beyond crack size. Although differences were noted in the residual stresses for the SRA versus the AR specimens, no residual stress peaks were noted in the edge of contact regions where cracks would eventually develop. TEM observations in the vicinity of the crack nucleation region showed that the dislocation structure decayed rapidly into the specimen thickness. The cause of the dislocations was attributed to plastic deformation caused by the clamping stresses.     

Observations on fretting damage transition to cracking; state of the art and preliminary observations

Interrupted fretting fatigue experiments were performed on 7075-T6 aluminum alloy and fretting damage characterized by confocal and scanning electron microscopy. Strain, induced by specimen fatigue, produces a small amplitude oscillatory motion between the fatigue specimen and the fretting pad. A fretting fatigue damage threshold exists in this material. Hundred percent fretting fatigue was defined as the average total cycles to fracture based on specimens 1–5 (both axial and normal forces were applied). Specimens had fretting damage induced at 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20% of the maximum fretting fatigue cycles to fracture. A positive correlation was not found between the depth of fretting damage and crack formation, but there appeared to be a stronger relationship between the fretting damaged surface areas, proximity of pits and crack nucleation sites.     

Al-Li 8090 和 Ti-6Al-4V 的 20 kHz 微动疲劳研究

用超声疲劳试验技术研究了Ａｌ－Ｌｉ８０９０铝锂合金和Ｔｉ－６Ａｌ－４Ｖ钛合金在２０ｋＨｚ时的微动损伤现象。试验结果表明，在极高频率下，也有微动损伤发生，并可引发疲劳裂纹的萌生和扩展，导致微动疲劳破坏。     

Ti-6Al-4V燕尾榫结构微动疲劳裂纹萌生及扩展行为研究

针对Ti-6Al-4V钛合金燕尾榫连接结构在不同载荷下的微动疲劳现象,采用榫形微动疲劳试验进行研究,并对裂纹萌生扩展、微动磨损及断口进行分析。结果表明,微动疲劳使构件疲劳寿命显著降低约70%;疲劳载荷对微动裂纹扩展的影响比对裂纹萌生的影响更大;微动疲劳裂纹起始于接触面边缘,与接触表面约成45°角,裂纹扩展到60~150μm后转向与接触表面垂直;微动疲劳断口形貌表面在微动磨损区具有多个裂纹源点,但只有一个主裂纹形成。     

Prediction of the fretting fatigue resistance of various surface-modification layers on 1045 steel: the role of fretting maps

In this work, fretting maps of various surface modifications were established based on the friction logs of fretting experiments. The fretting fatigue resistance of the coatings was analyzed according to the features of the fretting maps of the coatings. The results showed clearly that fretting maps of materials are effective tools to predict the fretting fatigue properties of substrates and surface-modification coatings. It was also demonstrated that the fretting fatigue resistance of a 1045 steel substrate could be improved to different extents through surface modification. The fretting fatigue resistance of solid lubricating coatings was the best and the tendency for initiation and propagation of cracks in the substrate material could also be restrained by depositing hard coatings.     

基于能量密度法预测微动疲劳寿命

通过接触界面的应力应变场和临界平面法计算了能量密度损伤参数,结合疲劳试验得到了能量密度损伤参数-寿命关系曲线中的材料常数,建立了LZ50钢微动疲劳寿命的预测公式。根据裂纹萌生寿命预测效果,将Chen损伤值作为裂纹萌生控制参数。分析了摩擦因数、微动桥半径、循环载荷和微动桥压力对LZ50车轴钢的Chen损伤值的影响,以及CRH2型动车组空心车轴裂纹萌生的位置及寿命。