Cross‐layer optimization for full‐duplex cognitive radio network with cooperative spectrum sensing

In this paper, the cross‐layer optimal design of multihop ad hoc network employing full‐duplex cognitive radios (CRs) is investigated. Firstly, the analytical expressions of cooperative spectrum sensing performance for multihop CR networks over composite fading channels are derived. Then, the opportunistic throughput and transmit power of CRs are presented based on the derivation of false alarm and missed detection probability. Finally, a multiobjective optimization model is proposed to maximize the opportunistic throughputs and minimize the transmitting power. Simulation results indicate that Pareto optimal solution of sensing duration, decision threshold, and transmit power can be achieved by cross‐layer multiobjective optimization, it can balance the conflicts between different objective functions and reap the acceptable outcomes for multihop CR network.     

Throughput analysis in censoring-based cooperative cognitive radio network with energy harvesting

An energy harvesting (EH) and cooperative cognitive radio (CR) network (CRN) is studied in this paper where CR users transmit data through a primary user (PU) channel if the channel remains idle, else an optimal number CRs helps in transmission of PU. To achieve the optimum number of CRs (ONCR) involved in cooperation, a novel scheme based on a combination of channel censoring and total error is proposed. The performance of the proposed scheme is investigated under RF harvesting scenario. The EH is dependent on sensing decision and a CR source harvests energy from PU's RF signal. The harvested energy (HE) is split into two parts: One part is used by the CR network (CRN) for its own transmission, and the other part is used for supporting PU. The effect of the energy allocation factor on total throughput is also investigated. New expressions for optimal number of CRs and throughput are developed. The effect of network parameters such as sensing time, censoring threshold, and energy allocation parameter (EAP) on throughput is investigated. Impact of distance between nodes is also studied.     

Channel assignment schemes for cooperative spectrum sensing in multi‐channel cognitive radio networks

In this paper, channel assignment for spectrum sensing is studied in multi‐channel cognitive radio (CR) networks to maximize the number of channels satisfying sensing performance (called available channels). Beginning with a nonlinear integer programming problem, we derive the upper bound of optimal value through many‐to‐many assignment problem and then propose three algorithms for both centralized and distributed scenarios. In centralized case, a heuristic scheme is proposed based on the signal‐to‐noise ratios (SNRs) over all primary channels (PCs). Then, a greedy scheme is proposed to reduce the reported information from the CRs. In distributed case, a novel scheme with multi‐round operation is designed following the coalitional game theory. In each round, each CR selects some PCs based on SNRs. Then, the CRs selecting the same channel play coalitional game, and thereby, multiple games are played concurrently over multiple channels. Finally, the best coalition for each channel is chosen among the formed coalitions to perform the cooperative spectrum sensing. The simulation results show that the proposed schemes can significantly increase the number of available channels. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adaptive power-controlled MAC protocols for improved throughput in hardware-constrained cognitive radio networks

Cognitive radios (CRs) are emerging as a promising technology to enhance spectrum utilization through opportunistic on-demand access. Many MAC protocols for cognitive radio networks (CRNs) have been designed assuming multiple transceivers per CR user. However, in practice, such an assumption comes at the cost of extra hardware. In this paper, we address the problem of assigning channels to CR transmissions in single-hop and multi-hop CRNs, assuming one transceiver per CR. The primary goal of our design is to maximize the number of feasible concurrent CR transmissions, and conserve energy as a secondary objective, with respect to both spectrum assignment and transmission power subject to interference constraint and user rate demands. The problem is formulated under both binary-level and multi-level spectrum opportunity frameworks. Our formulation applies to any power-rate relationship. For single-hop CRNs, a centralized polynomial-time algorithm based on bipartite matching that computes the optimal channel assignment is developed. We then integrate this algorithm into distributed MAC protocols that preserve fairness. For multi-hop ad hoc CRNs, we propose a novel distributed MAC protocol (WFC-MAC) that attempts to maximize the CRN throughput, assuming single transceiver radios but with “dual-receive” capability. WFC-MAC uses a cooperative assignment that relies only on information provided by the two communicating users. The main novelty in WFC-MAC lies in requiring no active coordination with licensed users and exploiting the dual-receive capability of radios, thus alleviating various channel access problems that are common to multi-channel designs. We conduct theoretical analysis of our MAC protocols, and study their performance via simulations. The results indicate that compared with CSMA/CA variants, our protocols significantly decrease the blocking rate of CR transmissions, and hence improve network throughput.     

Multi slot-throughput tradeoff in an improved energy detector based faded cognitive radio network

In this paper, the impact of a multi slot based cooperative spectrum sensing (CSS) on the performance of a cognitive radio (CR) network has been investigated. Each CR user, equipped with an improved energy detector (IED), uses a number of mini slots of the sensing time to perform the spectrum sensing. Each CR uses OR logic to combine the sub local decisions generated in each mini slot to obtain a local decision at CR level. Local decisions are sent to fusion centre (FC) over reporting channel. The FC obtains a final decision about the presence of primary user (PU) by combining the local decisions using a fusion rule: Majority or Maximal Ratio Combining. The performance of the CSS is assessed in terms of detection probability and false alarm probability considering both the sensing and reporting channels are Rayleigh faded. Furthermore, the impact of a number of sensing slots and IED parameter on throughput of CR network is also evaluated under the proposed spectrum sensing scenario. Impacts of several sensing parameters such as sensing channel SNR and reporting channel SNR on the performance of CR network are also evaluated. Performances of two fusion rules under study are compared. Effect of sensing error and synchronisation error is indicated. Further the study is extended for independent but non identically distributed (i.n.i.d.) Rayleigh faded channels as well as for a multiple PU scenario also.     

Q学习算法在机会频谱接入信道选择中的应用

针对“先听后传”的机会频谱接入中认知用户的信道选择问题,本文提出了一种基于Q学习的信道选择算法。在非理想感知的条件下,通过建立认知用户的信道选择模型并设计恰当的奖励函数,使智能体能够与未知环境不断交互和学习,进而选择长期累积回报最大的信道接入。在学习过程中,本文引入了Boltzmann实验策略,运用模拟退火思想实现了资源探索与资源利用之间的折衷。仿真结果表明,所提算法能够在未知环境先验知识条件下可以快速选择性能较好的信道接入,有效提高认知用户的接入吞吐量和系统的平均容量。      

Distributed and Centralized Schemes for Channel Sensing Order Setting in Multi-user Cognitive Radio Networks

Channel sensing order setting is crucial for efficient channel exploration and exploitation in cognitive radio (CR) networks. This paper investigates the sensing order setting problem in multi-channel multi-user CR networks for both distributed scenario and centralized scenario. As the optimal solution is too complicated, two suboptimal greedy search algorithms with much less computational complexities are proposed. The channel availability, channel achievable rate, multi-user diversity and collisions among CR users are considered comprehensively in our proposed methods. For the distributed scenario, a novel potential function is proposed to represent the relative advantage of a channel used by a user among multi channels and multi users, based on which each user can get its own sensing order. For the centralized scenario, a sensing matrix is obtained by a coordinator for all the users. It is shown that, CR users’ average throughput increases and collision probability decreases with the number of channels due to increased transmission opportunities. The total network throughput increases with the number of user pairs due to multi-user diversity. Simulation results validate the efficacy of the proposed schemes in elevating CR users’ throughput and decreasing the probability of collision, and show the performance improvement of the proposed schemes by comparisons with existing works.     

Application layer QoS optimization for multimedia transmission over cognitive radio networks

In cognitive radio (CR) networks, the perceived reduction of application layer quality of service (QoS), such as multimedia distortion, by secondary users may impede the success of CR technologies. Most previous work in CR networks ignores application layer QoS. In this paper we take an integrated design approach to jointly optimize multimedia intra refreshing rate, an application layer parameter, together with access strategy, and spectrum sensing for multimedia transmission in a CR system with time varying wireless channels. Primary network usage and channel gain are modeled as a finite state Markov process. With channel sensing and channel state information errors, the system state cannot be directly observed. We formulate the QoS optimization problem as a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP). A low complexity dynamic programming framework is presented to obtain the optimal policy. Simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed scheme.     

Decentralized Spectrum Access Amongst Cognitive Radios—An Interacting Multivariate Global Game-Theoretic Approach

This paper studies decentralized dynamic spectrum access using the theory of multivariate global games. We consider a network of cognitive radios (CRs) where each CR obtains noisy multivariate measurements of the quality of several logical channels and needs to decide which channel to access. Assuming the CRs are rational devices, each CR determines which channel to access, based on its expected throughput and Bayesian estimate of the intention of other CRs. We formulate conditions for which the Bayesian Nash equilibrium (BNE) of the resulting global game is monotonically increasing in the quality of the logical channel. This leads to a simple characterization of the competitive optimal behavior of the system as a function of the prior probability distribution of spectrum hole occupancy, channel quality and observation noise. In obtaining the characterization of the BNE, we extend recent results in univariate global games to the multivariate case.     

Study the effect of PAPR on wideband cognitive OFDM radio networks

Cognitive radio (CR) technology is viewed as a novel approach for maximizing the utilization of the radio electromagnetic spectrum. Spectrum sensing methods are often used for finding free channels to be used by CR. Recently, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing system (OFDM) has been suggested as a candidate technology for multicarrier-based CR systems. However, one problem that appears in OFDM systems is the high Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR). In this paper, the effect of PAPR reduction of the primary signal on the performance of the multiband joint detection for wideband spectrum sensing and the profit of the primary user will be investigated. Moreover, the optimal solutions for the multi-band joint detection for the non-cooperative and cooperative schemes will be analyzed by considering the primary user’s PAPR reduction. Also, the wideband cooperative spectrum sensing to improve the signal detection with high reduction in the PAPR will be suggested. Simulation results show that the PAPR reduction decreases the total price of the primary user and the aggregate opportunistic throughput of the secondary user. The cooperative scheme is effective in improving the performance in terms of the aggregate opportunistic throughput with PAPR reduction.     

Optimization algorithm of periodical cooperative spectrum sensing in cognitive radio

To decrease the interference to the primary user (PU) and improve the detected performance of cognitive radio (CR), a single‐band sensing scheme wherein the CR periodically senses the PU by cooperative spectrum sensing is proposed in this paper. In this scheme, CR first senses and then transmits during each period, and after the presence of the PU is detected, CR has to vacate to search another idle channel. The joint optimization algorithm based on the double optimization is proposed to optimize the periodical cooperative spectrum sensing scheme. The maximal throughput and minimal search time can be respectively obtained through the joint optimization of the local sensing time and the number of the cooperative CRs. We also extend this scheme to the periodical wideband cooperative spectrum sensing, and the joint optimization algorithm of the numbers of the sensing time slots and cooperative CRs is also proposed to obtain the maximal throughput of CR. The simulation shows that the proposed algorithm has lower computational quantity, and compared with the previous algorithms, when SNR = 5 dB, the throughput and search time of the proposed algorithm can respectively improve 0.3 kB and decrease 0.4 s. The simulation also indicates that the wideband cooperative spectrum sensing can achieve higher throughput than the single‐band cooperative spectrum sensing. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于最优停止的认知无线网络下行频谱接入算法

为有效平衡认知无线网络中次用户系统中接入信道的感知时间和信道总的吞吐量之间的矛盾,提出了一种只对部分信道进行感知的频谱接入策略,联合总的感知信道数和各条信道的感知时间进行优化,并通过最优停止算法求解,在最大化节省感知时间的同时,取得较大的平均吞吐量。与HC-MAC(Hardware Constrained- Media Access Control)算法的仿真分析对比表明,该算法在相同给定条件下感知时间更短,吞吐量更大,具有明显的优势。     

Optimality of Myopic Sensing in Multichannel Opportunistic Access

This paper considers opportunistic communication over multiple channels where the state (“good” or “bad”) of each channel evolves as independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Markov processes. A user, with limited channel sensing capability, chooses one channel to sense and decides whether to use the channel (based on the sensing result) in each time slot. A reward is obtained whenever the user senses and accesses a “good” channel. The objective is to design a channel selection policy that maximizes the expected total (discounted or average) reward accrued over a finite or infinite horizon. This problem can be cast as a partially observed Markov decision process (POMDP) or a restless multiarmed bandit process, to which optimal solutions are often intractable. This paper shows that a myopic policy that maximizes the immediate one-step reward is optimal when the state transitions are positively correlated over time. When the state transitions are negatively correlated, we show that the same policy is optimal when the number of channels is limited to two or three, while presenting a counterexample for the case of four channels. This result finds applications in opportunistic transmission scheduling in a fading environment, cognitive radio networks for spectrum overlay, and resource-constrained jamming and antijamming.      

Throughput Analysis of the Intermittent DCF for Opportunistic Spectrum Access

Recently, the opportunistic spectrum access (OSA) technologies have drawn a lot of the research community attention, because, by utilizing cognitive radio (CR) capabilities, they provide us with solutions to compensate for the spectrum underutilization. The MAC design is an important aspect of this on-going research. In this paper we study the performance of the distributed coordination function (DCF) in the OSA environment, which requires periodic intermissions to the MAC operation for spectrum scan procedures and opportunities identification. We present several modifications to the DCF that render it robust and operational in demanding environments of frequent spectrum scan procedures and low achievable transmission rates. We also present an analytical model for the throughput calculation of the resulted Intermittent DCF, which is based on the Bianchi’s Markov model and extends it so as to include the intermittent nature of the OSA environment. The proposed model is validated through simulations. A new parameter, controllable by the CR terminals, is used to optimize the throughput performance in realistic OSA scenarios. Using the presented analytical model we evaluate the performance of the Intermittent DCF under the effect of certain design parameters.     

认知无线Mesh网络中基于马氏决策模型的MAC协议

为解决认知无线Mesh网络中专用控制信道较难获得的问题,提出一种基于POMDP的机会式频谱接入MAC协议,在不需要中心控制器和专用控制信道的协调下,实现动态频谱感知和接入。仿真结果表明,基于POMDP的接入策略能够有效提高网络频谱利用率和吞吐量,性能最优,而基于贪心算法的接入策略,在降低计算复杂度的同时,获得了较好的性能,实用性较强。     

Prioritized Medium Access Control in Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks: Protocol and Analysis

Cognitive radio (CR) technology enables opportunistic exploration of unused licensed channels. By giving secondary users (SUs) the capability to utilize the licensed channels (LCs) when there are no primary users (PUs) present, the CR increases spectrum utilization and ameliorates the problem of spectrum shortage. However, the absence of a central controller in CR ad hoc network (CRAHN) introduces many challenges in the efficient selection of appropriate data and backup channels. Maintenance of the backup channels as well as managing the sudden appearance of PUs are critical issues for effective operation of CR. In this paper, a prioritized medium access control protocol for CRAHN, PCR-MAC, is developed which opportunistically selects the optimal data and backup channels from a list of available channels. We also design a scheme for reliable switching of a SU from the data channel to the backup channel and vice-versa. Thus, PCR-MAC increases network throughput and decreases SUs’ blocking rate. We also develop a Markov chain-based performance analysis model for the proposed PCR-MAC protocol. Our simulations, carried out in \(NS-3\) , show that the proposed PCR-MAC outperforms other state-of-the-art opportunistic medium access control protocols for CRAHNs.     

Optimal Competitive Algorithms for Opportunistic Spectrum Access

We consider opportunistic spectrum access (OSA) strategies for a transmitter in a multichannel wireless system, where a channel may or may not be available and the transmitter must sense/probe the channel to find out before transmission. Applications for this work include joint probing and transmission for a secondary user in a cognitive radio network. Limited by resources, e.g., energy and time, the transmitter must decide on a subset of a potentially very large number of channels to probe and can only use for transmission those that have been found to be available. In contrast to previous works, we do not assume the user has a priori knowledge regarding the statistics of channel states. The main goal of this work is to design robust strategies that decide, based only on knowledge of the channel bandwidths/data rates, which channels to probe. We derive optimal strategies that maximize the total expected bandwidth/data rate in the worst-case, via a performance measure in the form of a competitive regret (ratio) between the average performance of a strategy and a genie (or omniscient observer). This formulation can also be viewed as a two-player zero-sum game between the user and an adversary which chooses the channel state that minimizes the user?s gain. We show that our results correspond to a Nash equilibrium (in the form of a mixed strategy) in this game. We examine the performance of the optimal strategies under a wide range of system parameters and practical channel models via numerical studies.     

碰撞约束和非理想感知下认知多址接入信道的有效吞吐量

在碰撞约束和非理想信道信息下,研究认知多址接入信道中多个次用户接入主用户频谱的有效吞吐量问题。在机会频谱接入方式（OSA）下,定义有效吞吐量并作为次用户的性能指标。考虑信道质量信息,在信道质量分布参数未知的情况下采用有限的信道样本对参数进行估计,并对非理想感知下次用户的性能进行分析。通过仿真实验,分别讨论了信道质量门限与碰撞概率及次用户性能之间的关系,对比了理想感知和非理想感知下次用户的性能,并与其他算法进行对比,验证了本文接入策略的有效性。     

Available and Waiting Times for Cognitive Radios

Cognitive radios (CRs) have been recently proposed for the problem of spectrum scarcity. The principle of CRs?? operation is based on the opportunistic access to the frequency spectrum mainly dedicated to primary users (PUs). The statistical time pattern of PUs?? channel usage and arrival can affect the usability of specific frequency bands for CRs. In this note, the effect of the arrival rate and channel holding time of PUs on the available times for CRs is analyzed. To this end, first, based on Poissonian arrivals, the available time for CRs is calculated. Then, assuming a gamma distribution for the inter-arrival times and a uniform distribution of channel holding time of PU in these intervals, the probability density function and moments of the available time for CRs are derived. Next, the effect of PUs statistical parameters on the average number of packets and the average symbol rate that a CR can transmit is analyzed. Also, taking that CR needs at least T seconds, the average waiting time is calculated.     

Joint Design and Separation Principle for Opportunistic Spectrum Access in the Presence of Sensing Errors

Opportunistic spectrum access (OSA) that allows secondary users to independently search for and exploit instantaneous spectrum availability is considered. The design objective is to maximize the throughput of a secondary user while limiting the probability of colliding with primary users. Integrated in the joint design are three basic components: a spectrum sensor that identifies spectrum opportunities, a sensing strategy that determines which channels in the spectrum to sense, and an access strategy that decides whether to access based on potentially erroneous sensing outcomes. This joint design is formulated as a constrained partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP), and a separation principle is established. The separation principle reveals the optimality of myopic policies for the design of the spectrum sensor and the access strategy, leading to closed-form optimal solutions. Furthermore, it decouples the design of the sensing strategy from that of the spectrum sensor and the access strategy, and reduces the constrained POMDP to an unconstrained one. Numerical examples are provided to study the tradeoff between sensing time and transmission time, the interaction between the physical layer spectrum sensor and the MAC layer sensing and access strategies, and the robustness of the ensuing design to model mismatch.