Anisotropy effect on strengths of metamorphic rocks

This paper aims to study the effect of anisotropy on strengths of several metamorphic rocks of southern(Cine) submassif of Menderes metamorphic massif in southwest Turkey. Four different metamorphic rocks including foliated phyllite, schist, gneiss and marble(calcschist) were selected and examined.Discontinuity surveys were made along lines for each rock and evaluated with DIPS program. L-type Schmidt hammer was applied in the directions parallel and perpendicular to foliation during the field study. Several hand samples and rock blocks were collected during the field study for measurements of dry and saturated densities, dry and saturated unit weights and porosity, and for petrographic analysis and strength determination in laboratory. L-and N-type Schmidt hammers were applied in the directions perpendicular(anisotropy angle of 0°) and parallel(anisotropy angle of 90) to the foliation on selected blocks of phyllite, schist, gneiss and marble(calcschist). The phyllite and schist have higher porosity and lower density values than the other rocks. However, coarse crystalline gneiss and marble(calcschist) have higher rebound values and strengths, and they are classified as strong-very strong rocks. Generally, the rebound values in the direction perpendicular to the foliation are slightly higher than that in the direction parallel to foliation. Rebound values of N-type Schmidt hammer are higher than the L-type values except for phyllite. Sometimes, the rebound values of laboratory and field applications gave different results. This may result from variable local conditions such as minerals differentiation,discontinuities, water content, weathering degree and thickness of foliated structure.     

用声波法评价地层可钻性各向异性的实验研究

地层可钻性各向异性的评价对井眼轨迹控制具有重要意义。通过室内实验分别测定了岩芯垂直于和平行于地层层面方向的可钻性及声波速度，得到了岩石可钻性各向异性指数和波速各向异性系数，并对结果进行了讨论。用数理统计方法研究分析了牙轮钻头岩石可钻性各向异性指数、牙轮钻头垂直于和平行于地层层面方向岩石可钻性差值和PDC钻头岩石可钻性各向异性指数与纵波波速各向异性系数的相关关系，建立了用纵波波速各向异性系数评价地层可钻性各向异性的模型。利用所建立的模型，采用地震资料或测井资料可以方便地对地层可钻性各向异性进行评价。对河南油田AN2004井进行评价，其结果表明，用该方法评价出的地层可钻性各向异性能正确反映被评价地层的特性。     

Influence of loading and heating processes on elastic and geomechanical properties of eclogites and granulites

Increased knowledge of the elastic and geomechnical properties of rocks is important for numerous engineering and geoscience applications(e.g. petroleum geoscience, underground waste repositories,geothermal energy, earthquake studies, and hydrocarbon exploration). To assess the effect of pressure and temperature on seismic velocities and their anisotropy, laboratory experiments were conducted on metamorphic rocks. P-(V_p) and S-wave(V_s) velocities were determined on cubic samples of granulites and eclogites with an edge length of 43 mm in a triaxial multianvil apparatus using the ultrasonic pulse emission technique in dependence of changes in pressure and temperature. At successive isotropic pressure states up to 600 MPa and temperatures up to 600 ℃, measurements were performed related to the sample coordinates given by the three principal fabric directions(x, y, z) representing the foliation(xy-plane), the normal to the foliation(z-direction), and the lineation direction(x-direction). Progressive volumetric strain was logged by the discrete piston displacements. Cumulative errors in V_p and V_s are estimated to be 1%. Microcrack closure significantly contributes to the increase in seismic velocities and decrease in anisotropies for pressures up to 200-250 MPa. Characteristic P-wave anisotropies of about 10% are obtained for eclogite and 3-4% in a strongly retrogressed eclogite as well as granulites. The wave velocities were used to calculate the geomechanical properties(e.g. density, Poisson's ratio, volumetric strain, and elastic moduli) at different pressure and temperature conditions. These results contribute to the reliable estimate of geomechanical properties of rocks.     

云母石英片岩片理面力学特征试验研究

云母石英片岩的矿物成分和微观结构决定了其各向异性特征,通过铸体磨片和电镜扫描试验,获得了云母石英片岩的矿物组成和微观结构特征;通过三轴剪切试验,获得了微风化岩样片理面力学参数;通过强风化和中风化岩块的点荷载试验,结合强风化岩样的片理面剪切试验,得出了强风化和中风化岩样的片理面力学参数;按照材料力学理论,采用片理面力学参数计算得出岩样的最小单轴抗压强度,进而计算得出岩样的各向异性系数;以垂直片理面的抗压强度作为计算依据,计算得出岩样的风化系数,进而总结出岩样的各向异性系数与风化系数的关系,揭示了风化过程中片理面力学特征的变化规律。     

Laboratory study on the mechanical behaviors of an anisotropic shale rock

Shale gas is becoming an important energy source worldwide.The geomechanical properties of shale rocks can have a major impact on the ef fi ciency of shale gas exploration.This paper studied the mineralogical and mechanical characteristics of a typical gas shale in Ohio,USA.Scanning electron microscope(SEM)with energy dispersive X-ray(EDX)analyses was employed to measure the microstructure and material composition of the shale rock.The anisotropic behaviors of shale rock,including compressive and tensile strengths,were experimentally measured.The characteristics of shale rock were also studied by nondestructive wave speed measurements.The shale demonstrated strong anisotropic behaviors with the tensile strengths perpendicular to the bedding plane around 300e360 times of that parallel to bedding plane.Results of ultrasonic tests indicated that both compression and shear wave velocities show strong anisotropic patterns.The compression wave speed was the smallest in the direction perpendicular to the bedding plane;while the shear wave speed was the smallest in the direction parallel to the bedding plane.The ratio of wave speed anisotropy is around 1.3e1.4 for compression wave;the ratio of shear wave speed anisotropy is larger and more diverse compared with the compression wave anisotropy.This might be related to the larger variability in the frictional adhesive strength along bedding plane than the compressive adhesive strength.     

A modified Hoek–Brown failure criterion for anisotropic intact rock

The Hoek–Brown criterion parameters (σ_ci, m_i and s) are significantly influenced by the strength anisotropy of intact rock. In the present study, the criterion was modified by incorporating a new parameter (k_β) to account for the effect of strength anisotropy, thus being able to determine the strength of intact anisotropic rock under loading in different orientations of the plane of anisotropy. The range of the parameter (k_β) for the rocks tested has been analytically investigated by carrying out triaxial tests, in different orientations of the foliation plane. The proposed modification was studied for metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist, marble), but could also be applied to other rock types exhibiting “inherent” anisotropy, e.g. sedimentary as well as igneous rocks. The proposed modified criterion is intended for use for prediction of strength of intact rock, but can also be extended to rock masses.     

基于波速测量的龙马溪组页岩的各向异性研究

随页岩气开采大力发展,对页岩的认识也逐显重要。页岩作为明显的层状结构岩石,普遍表现出各向异性。为此,基于横观各向同性介质模型,通过测量岩样不同方向的纵波波速和快慢横波波速,计算了长宁区块龙马溪组岩样的刚度系数与弹性系数,并与静载荷试验测定的弹性参数做出对比。试验结果表明,页岩的纵波波速以及快慢横波波速均表现出各向异性,并且随围压升高,波速升高速率变缓。岩样的杨氏模量与泊松比亦表现出各向异性,水平方向上的杨氏模量始终高于垂直方向上的杨氏模量,而3个方向的泊松比不一致。动态加载测试值与静态加载测试值随围压变化趋势一致,并且随围压升高,由孔隙和微裂缝引起各向异性减弱。考虑页岩中微裂缝的存在,通过弥散损伤模型计算龙马溪组页岩的损伤参数,认为在围压作用下微裂缝主要存在于平行层理面方向,围压对垂直层理面的裂缝影响较小。     

Variation of Schmidt hammer values with imbrication direction in clastic sedimentary rocks

In this study, Schmidt hammer rebound (HR) values of clast-supported conglomerates, matrix-supported conglomerates and normally graded gravelly sandstones were measured to investigate the effect of such anisotropy on strength. The highest Schmidt HR values were obtained from the gravelly sandstones, with an average value of 39, decreasing with gravel content. In clast-supported conglomerates, the average HR values were 34 and 38, parallel and perpendicular to the palaeocurrent direction, respectively. Similar measurements were also made over the matrix-supported conglomerates. Average HR values of matrix-supported conglomerates were determined as 37 and 41 parallel and perpendicular to the palaeocurrent direction, respectively. In the clast-supported conglomerates, average HR value on perpendicular palaeocurrent side was 12% higher than those parallel to palaeocurrent. This ratio was 9% for matrix-supported conglomerates. Preferred orientation or clast imbrication creates more gravelly and less matrix covered area parallel to the palaeocurrent than the other directions. This visible difference in the gravel–matrix ratio is considered to be the basis of the strength anisotropy in clastic sedimentary rocks. This study demonstrates the potential of the Schmidt hammer for quantifying the degree of anisotropy in such rocks.     

Hydraulic anisotropy of homogeneous soils and rocks: influence of the densification process

Many values of the ratio k_max/k_min are available for clays and rocks which can be cut for tests in different directions. In comparison, few reliable results are available for non-cohesive materials. The hydraulic anisotropy ratios of homogeneous clays, rocks and granular soils appear to be very similar. In particular, k_max/k_min seems to be lower than 4, which confirms that this ratio has an upper limit related to the shape of particles, their arrangement, or the directional tortuosity within the pore space. In the bedding plane of sedimentary rocks, the ratio k_b.max/k_b.min is usually lower than 1.5, thus these rocks are nearly isotropic in their bedding plane. In granular soils, the k_h/k_v, contrary to common opinion, is not always higher than 1. Experimental values for sands and gravels are in the 0.75 to 4.1 range. The influence of densification on hydraulic anisotropy is found to be similar for a sand and a clay, and probably for any soil having settled in still water and influenced subsequently only by gravity. The hydraulic anisotropy of sandstone is found to be in continuity with that of sand, and it increases with densification.     

Fracture toughness anisotropy in granitic rocks

Four relatively fine grained and homogeneous granitic rocks have been studied to investigate the relationship between their microstructural properties and fracture toughness behaviour. The apparently homogeneous rocks have been found to exhibit strong anisotropy in terms of microcrack distribution and their orientation. The fracture toughness values for these rocks, measured with the cracked chevron notch Brazilian disc method (CCNBD), varied from 0.71 to 1.89 MPa m^0.5, with similar variation observed within the same rock type depending on the specific fracture plane studied. The relationship between these variations and the corresponding microstructural properties along specified planes has been investigated in detail to show a strong correlation between the two. Further confirmation is provided by taking into account the seismic velocity anisotropy observed along the same specified directions. The nature of these variations and their effect on the resulting fracture path and surface are discussed. The results clearly show the difficulty in assigning a unique value of fracture toughness to rocks and rock-like materials without cognizance of their microstructural characteristics.     

Direct tensile behavior of a transversely isotropic rock

The tensile behavior of a transversely isotropic rock is investigated by a series of direct tensile tests on cylindrical argillite specimens. To study the deformability of argillite under tension, two components of an electrically resistant type of strain gage with a parallel arrangement, or a semiconductor strain gage, are adopted for measuring the small transverse strain observed on specimens during testing. The curves of axial stress vs axial strain and vs average volumetric strain are presented for argillite specimens with differently inclined angles of foliation. Experimental results indicate that the stress-strain behavior depends on the foliation inclination of specimens with respect to the loading direction. The five elastic constants of argillite are calculated by measuring two cylindrical specimens in the manner recommended by Wei and Hudson. Based on theoretical analysis results, the range of the foliation inclination of the specimens tested is investigated for feasibility obtaining the five elastic moduli. A dipping angle of the foliations (θ) of 30–60° with respect to the plane normal to the loading direction is recommended. The final failure modes of the specimens are investigated in detail. A sawtoothed failure plane occurs for the specimens with a high inclination of foliation with respect to the plane perpendicular to the loading direction. On the other hand, a smooth plane occurs along the foliation for specimens with low inclination of foliation with respect to the plane normal to the loading direction. A conceptual failure criterion of tensile strength is proposed for specimens with a high inclination of foliation.     

节理岩体物理模拟与超声波试验研究

以三维各向异性介质弹性波方程为理论基础，给出具有不同节理面岩体的数学物理模型，将具有典型节理构造的岩体分别简化为横向各向同性和单斜各向异性介质，并得出各向异性介质中的弹性波在遇节理面发生反射、透射后沿不同传播方向的传播速度。根据上述数学物理模型制备节理岩体物理模型，相对于节理面以不同的入射角度进行超声波波速测试，试验证明，超声波波速对于物理模型中节理面的影响十分敏感，节理面的存在使弹性波传播速度重新分布，在合理布置测点的情况下，对节理面的存在及方向识别较为准确。在实际工程中，通过合理布置测点的超声波测试，可以对工程岩体中节理裂隙发育的优势方向进行判断，有效地反映岩体结构面的各向异性，为实际工程提供数据资料。     

柱状节理玄武岩各向异性特性的调查与试验研究

针对几何形状特殊且为镶嵌结构的柱状节理岩体,为认识其各向异性力学特点和开挖卸荷下的破坏模式,首先在柱状节理玄武岩截面几何特征的现场调查统计和3类结构面的扫描电镜(SEM)分析基础上阐述柱状节理岩体在结构上的横观各向同性特点,然后通过垂直其柱体轴线方向和平行其柱体轴线方向的柱状节理岩体原位声波测试揭示柱状节理玄武岩的变形各向异性,进而通过不同取样方向岩芯的单轴压缩试验和现场岩块的点荷载试验阐明其强度各向异性特点,最后结合上述所获得的柱状节理玄武岩各向异性认识分析其开挖卸荷下的“结构–应力”控制型破坏模式及其结构劣化的具体表现形式,所得认识和结论对柱状节理岩体地层中地下洞室稳定性分析和支护设计具有参考意义。     

考虑层理方向效应煤岩巴西劈裂及单轴压缩试验研究

 针对淮南矿区B10煤层以水平层理为主,且层理性较强的特点,通过巴西劈裂及单轴压缩试验,研究煤岩在垂直和平行于层理面方向上的拉、压力学特性。研究结果表明：(1) 煤岩垂直和平行于层理面方向抗拉强度均具有明显的离散性,但前者离散程度更大;对比两者均值,前者显然小于后者,各向异性显著。(2) 宏观煤岩成分分布的随机性及其物理力学性质的差异是导致煤岩抗拉特性离散性的重要条件;而宏观煤岩成分的条带状分布特点,以及煤岩割理系统分布的方向性,则是决定煤岩力学特性各向异性的内在原因。(3) 煤岩垂直与平行于层理面方向单轴压缩轴向应力–应变曲线相比,前者峰前变形特征相似,力学性态稳定,峰后应力跌落迅速,脆性特征明显;后者则峰值前、后各曲线均变形各异,力学性态不稳定。煤样的轴向峰值应变均小于1%,变形特征属脆性破坏。(4) 垂直和平行于层理面方向单轴压缩煤样的断口破坏形态分别以剪切和劈裂破坏为主,且2个方向的单轴压缩强度及变形参数均具有明显差异,各向异性特征显著。(5) 煤岩垂直和平行于层理面方向单轴压缩特性均具有一定的离散性,但后者离散程度更大。(6) 煤岩单轴抗压强度远大于抗拉强度,垂直和平行于层理面方向单轴抗压强度分别为抗拉强度的40.1和14.7倍。     

昆明泥炭土工程性质原生各向异性试验研究

基于一系列室内试验结果,系统分析了昆明泥炭土原生各向异性对固结变形、抗剪强度和渗透性质的影响,并从分析泥炭土特殊组分入手,探讨了其工程性质原生各向异性的产生机制。试验结果表明:高分解度泥炭土水平向与垂直向表现出来的变形特性差异不大,θ=45°方向土样在固结压力p较小时压缩模量E_s及固结系数C_v较小,但当p增大到一定程度时,3个方向的变形特性趋于一致;分解度低的泥炭土更多呈现变形各向同性。抗剪强度方面,不含或含微量残余纤维的高分解度泥炭土抗剪强度原生各向异性程度较弱,主要体现在粘聚力上,内摩擦角的差异较小,且抗剪强度各向异性程度随着腐殖质含量增多而减弱;残余纤维含量多对泥炭土的强度各向异性能起增强作用。渗透特性方面,渗透系数k随切样角度θ增大而增大,即泥炭土水平方向的渗透性比垂直方向的强。泥炭土的各向异性机制复杂,在导致各向异性效应方面,矿质土颗粒、腐殖质及残余纤维产生了不同的效果。     

各向异性砂土剪切带角度的理论分析

针对平面应变条件下各向异性砂土剪切带角度的试验规律,采用传统的3种理论和分叉理论进行对比分析。将平面应变条件下剪切带角度的试验结果按照传统3种理论整理发现,尽管传统3种理论可以估算同种砂剪切带角度的极小、中间和极大值,但无法解释其各向异性规律。砂土在平面应变条件下破坏时会产生明显的剪切带,当剪切带方向和砂土沉积面方向接近时,会较早诱发剪切带的产生,使材料强度降低,造成了平面应变条件下各向异性强度规律明显不同于常规三轴条件下的试验规律,采用分叉理论结合各向异性模型则可以有效解释这个规律。随砂土沉积面角度的变化,模型可以从细观角度解释常规三轴条件下剪切带角度的单调变化的试验规律,结合分叉理论可以描述平面应变条件下其先减小然后增大的规律。通过几种理论对比分析表明,模型结合分叉理论不但能够描述多种应力状态下的平面应变和常规三轴应力条件下剪切带角度表现的不同规律,而且能够从细观角度解释其各向异性成因。     

Petrophysics studies of sedimentary rocks from a cross-hole seismic test site

In order to provide a site for studying in detail seismic wave propagation over a large range of frequencies through layered sedimentary rocks, four vertical boreholes of approximately 260 m depth and maximum distance apart of 95 m have been drilled through five cyclical sequences of shallow-dipping sandstone, mudrock and limestone formations in the Carboniferous Limestone series in northern England. Two of the boreholes were fully cored and a number of core samples from these were carefully preserved, at 1 m intervals in the first and at selected intervals in the second. Bulk density, porosity and P- and S-wave velocities and attenuation in the vertical and horizontal directions have been made on a total of 180 specimens from the preserved core samples. Permeability and electrical properties have been measured for the sandstone samples. Multiple linear regression equations have been derived relating the P- and S-wave velocities to porosity and clay content. These equations indicate the relative importance of increases in porosity and in clay content on decreases in all velocities, and the relative insensitivity to changes in clay content of PH- and SH-wave velocities. For the samples tested, the average anisotropy observed under in situ stress conditions is approximately 0.5% for limestones (porosities to 12%) and 5% for sandstones (porosities in the range 2 to 18%). For mudrocks (porosities in the range 2 to 15%), the average anisotropy is 21% for P waves and 27% for S waves. The results have been used to confirm the magnitudes of anisotropy observed in cross-hole seismic tomography at the site, in modelling the seismic response of sedimentary rocks with an appreciable clay content, and in modelling velocity dispersion and attenuation for rocks at the site over a wide range of frequencies.     

考虑主应力轴方向的砂土各向异性强度准则与滑动面研究

主应力加载方向对土体强度产生影响的根本原因是土体存在各向异性。对于横观各向同性砂土而言,沿不同平面的抗剪强度随该平面与沉积面夹角增大而增大。认为砂土固有各向异性强度与该平面的各向异性参数密切相关,给出了各向异性砂的峰值强度表达式。在SMP准则中,各个潜在滑动面上的剪正应力比相同,各向异性砂土的抗剪强度和滑动面位置由强度最低的潜在滑动面所决定。综合考虑主应力轴、滑动面以及沉积面之间的位置关系,得到了砂土的各向异性强度准则。采用福建标准砂进行了一系列定轴剪切试验,系统地观测了定轴剪切试验中试样滑动面的特征。已有试验数据和理论结果的对比表明,各向异性强度准则可以较好地预测各向异性砂土的强度与滑动面位置。     

混凝土超声无损检测技术的应用

介绍国内混凝土结构超声波检测进展情况,包括混凝土强度、混凝土裂缝、混凝土内部缺陷、混凝土结合面和混凝土匀质性的检测方法和应用。并且探讨了混凝土结构无损检测技术的发展趋势。