Biodiesel production process optimization from Spirulina maxima microalgae and performance investigation in a diesel engine

Biodiesel is a renewable, easily biodegradable, eco-friendly and sustainable alternative energy source. In this investigation, crude oil was extracted from Spirulina maxima microalgae through biochemical conversion method with the help of soxhlet apparatus. Biodiesel production process parameters were optimized through base transesterification. Maximum biodiesel yield achieved was 87.75 % at optimal reaction condition after transesterification, when methanol to oil ratio was 6:1, catalyst loading was 1 % KOH (wt.%), temperature was 65 °C, and stirring speed was 600 rpm for a reaction time of 70 minutes. All the physicochemical properties of the produced biodiesel were determined and compared with the ASTM D6751 specification. Finally, performance and emission of an unmodified diesel engine was evaluated with 20 % and 40 % (v/v) biodiesel blends and compared the results with ordinary Diesel fuel (DF). Using biodiesel blends improves Hydrocarbon (HC) emission by 10-15 % and Carbon monoxide (CO) emission by 9.3-13.9 %. However, Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), Oxides of nitrogen (NOX), Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and smoke opacity were found to be slightly higher for biodiesel blends, and Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) was found slightly lower than DF. Thus, Spirulina maxima serves as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production and prospective fuel in diesel engine application.

     

Scanning electron microscopy as a tool for authentication of biodiesel synthesis from Linum usitatissimum seed oil

Utilization of renewable and alternative energy feedstocks such as nonedible seeds oil to deal with the increasing energy crises and related ecological concerns have gained the attention of researchers. Biodiesel is an efficient and renewable substitute for diesel engine. This work investigates the potential of inexpensive nonedible seed oil of Linum usitatissimum to synthesize biodiesel using iron sulfate green nanocatalyst through the process of transesterification. Flax seed contains about 37.5% oil content estimated through Soxhlet apparatus. Light microscopy revealed that seed size varies from 3.0 to 6.0 cm in length, 2.0 to 3.3 cm in width, and 0.7 to 1.0 mm in diameter. Color of seed varied from yellow to brown. Characterization of biodiesel is performed through GC–MS and FTIR. Scanning electron microscopy was carried out to study the morphological features of seed coat. Catalyst was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy diffraction X-ray, and X-ray diffraction. The diffraction peaks of Fe₃O₄ green nanoparticles were found to be in 2θ values, 30.24°, 35.62°, 38.26°, 49.56°, 57.12°, and 62.78°. Fuel properties of biodiesel are also determined and compared with ASTM standards. Linum usitatissimum biodiesel has density 0.8722 (15°C kg/L), kinetic viscosity 5.45 (40°C cSt), flash point (90°C), pour point (−13°C), cloud point (−9°C), sulfur (0.0432% wt), and total acid number (0.245 mg KOH/g). It is concluded that L. usitatissimum seed oil is a highly potential source for biodiesel production to cope with the challenge of present energy demand.     

Ethanolysis of soybean oil into biodiesel: process optimization via central composite design

A process for production of ethyl ester for use as biodiesel has been studied. The sodium hydroxide catalyzed transesterification of soybean oil with ethanol was carried out at different molar ratio of alcohol to oil, reaction temperature and catalyst amount for a constant agitation in two hours of reaction time. Central composite design and response surface methodology were used to determine optimum condition for producing biodiesel. It was found that ethanol to oil ratio and catalyst concentration have a positive influence on ester conversion as well as interaction effects between the three factors considered. An empirical model obtained was able to predict conversion as a function of ethanol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature and catalyst concentration adequately. Optimum condition for soybean ethyl ester production was found to be moderate ethanol to oil ratio (10.5: l), mild temperature range (70°C) and high catalyst concentrations (l.0%wt), with corresponding ester conversion of 93.0%.     

废动植物油生产转化生物柴油技术的研究

生物柴油是一种绿色环保、可再生的生物质燃料.利用废动植物油在微酸催化剂环境下制取生物柴油的酯交换工艺进行了系统研究,探索了反应温度、催化剂用量等对反应的影响,并讨论了最佳反应条件.     

近红外光谱和气相色谱-质谱联用技术对橄榄油掺杂及品质分析研究

分别采用近红外光谱技术及气相色谱-质谱联用技术对橄榄油样品进行分析。采用透射方式采集橄榄油样品的近红外光谱比漫反射方式可以获得更好的重现性;通过直观分析、二阶求导以及主成分分析可快速判别橄榄油与掺杂橄榄油。0.10 g橄榄油样品经过10 mL的KOH-甲醇溶液甲酯化处理后,加入10 mL正己烷和10 mL水进行液液萃取,并对正己烷提取液进行气相色谱-质谱分析,对39种橄榄油脂肪酸甲酯含量的分析结果与近红外光谱的主成分分析图对比得出,油酸和亚油酸是影响橄榄油近红外光谱扫描结果的主要成分。     

Experimental analysis on neat mustard oil methyl ester subjected to ultrasonication and microwave irradiation in four stroke single cylinder Diesel engine

Transesterification of fatty acid using the application of ultrasound stirring and microwave irradiation has been used of late for biodiesel production from various vegetable oil and animal fats. However analysis on influence of these techniques on performance, combustion and emission aspects has received little attention. In this work, transesterification of mustard oil with methanol was performed using ultra sound stirring (42 kHz /170 W, 80 W) and microwave irradiation (230v AC, 50 Hz, 900 W). Reaction time, conversion rate, fuel properties, performance, emission and combustion characteristics were compared with conventional transesetrification. Results indicated that Mustard oil methyl ester subjected to ultrasonication and microwave irradiation (MOMESUM) has 5.71% more yield than conventional transesterification process. It was also observed that BTE for MOMESUM is improved by 5.84% with 5.14% reduction in BSFC when compared to MOME. CO, HC, NOx and Smoke emission was found to decrease by 11.39%, 3.81%, 7.99% and 5.3% respectively for MOMESUM.     

茶籽油中脂肪酸成分的气相色谱/质谱分析

建立茶籽油中脂肪酸的气相色谱/质谱 (GC/MS) 测定方法。茶籽油经正己烷提取和三氟化硼衍生,用HP-5MS毛细管柱分离。用所建立的方法比较茶籽油、橄榄油和其它植物油中的脂肪酸含量。并分析茶籽油、茶籽及加工副产物中的脂肪酸水平。     

Identification of novel nonedible oil seeds via scanning electron microscopy for biodiesel production

Exploration of substitute energy feed‐stocks is the much‐debated topic in the scientific society due to increasing power crises and related ecological concerns. As a source of sustainable energy, biodiesel turns out to be the best alternative to petro fuels. In this context, nonedible oil‐producing seeds might be a potential source for biodiesel production owing to their environment‐friendly nature and cost‐effectiveness. The current study, consequently, deals with the investigation and identification of micro‐morphological characters between six novel nonedible oil‐bearing seeds employing scanning electron microscopy as possible biodiesel feed‐stocks. Light microscopic examinations show that seed size varies from 0.3 to 1.3 cm in width and 0.5 to 1.5 cm in. Additionally, a large difference in seed color ranges from dark brown, black, and various shades of light brown was also witnessed. The FFA content of the seeds ranges in 0.3–4.1 mg KOH/g, and the seed oil content fall in 30–65% (w/w) range. SEM‐mediated seed ultrastructure investigations displays greater variation in seed size, shape, color, periclinal wall shape, and sculpturing and so on. All the seeds differ from rounded, ovoid, ovate, oblong, flattened, and elliptical shape. Greater variation in seed wall structure has been seen from angular, entire, irregular, straight, elongated, smooth, and polygonal. The periclinal wall arrangements show alteration from flat, depressed, elevated, smooth, pentagonal, bullate, and coarse seed margins. The results obtained from the current study suggest that scanning electron microscopy could be a beneficial tool in vitalizing the hidden micromorphological characters among various nonedible oil producing seeds, which eventually helps in exploration, correct identification, seed classification, and authentication in future.     

Implication of scanning electron microscopy as a tool for identification of novel,nonedible oil seeds for biodiesel production

Biodiesel is a promising, bio-based, renewable, nontoxic, environment friendly, and alternative fuel for petroleum derived fuels which helps to reduce dependency on conventional fossil fuels. In this study, six novel, nonedible seed oil producing feedstock were explored for their potential for sustainable production of biodiesel. It is very important to correctly identify oil yielding plant species. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used as reliable tool for authentic identification of oil yielding seeds. Macromorphological characters of seeds were studied with light microscopy (LM). Outcomes of LM of seeds exposed distinctive variation in seed size from 16.3 to 3.2 mm in length and 12.4 to 0.9 mm in width, shape varied from oval to triangular, and color from black to light brown. Oil content of nonedible seed ranged from 25 to 30% (w/w). Free fatty acid content of seed oil varied from 0.32 to 2.5 mg KOH/g. Moreover, ultra structural study of seeds via SEM showed variation in surface sculpturing, cell arrangement, cell shape, periclinal wall shape, margins, protuberances, and anticlinal wall shape. Surface sculpturing varied from rugged, reticulate, varrucose, papillate, and striate. Periclinal wall arrangements confirmed variation from rough, wavy, raised, depressed, smooth, and elevated whereas, anticlinal walls pattern showed variation from profuse undulating, smooth, raised, grooved, deep, curved, and depressed. It was concluded that SEM could be a latent and advanced technique in unveiling hidden micromorphological characters of nonedible oil yielding seeds which delivers valuable information to researchers and indigenous people for precise and authentic identification and recognition.     

Morphological characterization,growth appraisal,and probing biofuels potential of newly isolated Scenedesmus sp. from desert Cholistan

Microalgae have an excellent potential for producing valuable natural products, including biofuels. Therefore, it is imperative to explore and document the existing microalgal flora and utilize their potentials to cope the increasing human needs. The present work aims at exploring and characterizing newly isolated microalgae from desert Cholistan, a habitat with myriad algal diversity. Light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and molecular phylogenetic approaches were used for species‐level identification. Characterization and growth optimization of Scendesmus sp. were analyzed under three different growth modes to determine the most favorable conditions for increasing biomass, growth rate, and lipid content. The results revealed that mixotrophic (MT) mode significantly increases photosynthetic activity, growth rate, and lipid content with glycerol as supplement carbon source. The investigated Scenedesmus dimorphous produced a maximum dry weight of 1.73 g L^?1, improved fatty acid methyl esters profile and yield lipid up to 40% of DCW (68 g L^?1) under MT mode, which is almost double to that of photoautotrophic cultivation. The glycerol availability in medium has been identified as the critical element for boosting growth and lipid content. Thus, it can reduce the cost of biofuel production.     

Investigation of human hair fibers using lateral force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and lateral force microscopy (LFM) were used to investigate the morphologic and surface changes associated with various surface modifications to human hair. These included extraction with a series of solvents, bleaching, and treatment with a cationic copolymer. The study assessed the ability of these techniques to distinguish the changes in surface properties, including morphology and friction coefficient, as manifested in changes brought about by the indicated surface modifications. While topographic morphology can easily be investigated with contact AFM. LFM offers an additional tool for probing the surface distribution of oils and waxes. The removal of surface lipids from the fiber surface was accomplished using soxhlet extraction with t-butanol and n-hexane, while the free internal lipids (within the fiber structure) were removed by extraction with a mixture of chloroform and methanol (70:30, v/v). In addition, the surface of hair was modified with the cationic polymer, co(vinyl pyrrolidone-methacrylamidopropyl trimethylammonium chloride [PVP/MAPTAC]), and its distribution on the surface was monitored. Ambient AFM and LFM studies of surface modified and native fibers clearly indicate that when investigated as a function of tip loading force, the different modifications result in changes of the friction coefficient, which increase in this order: native, bleached, solvent extracted, and polymer-treated hair. Friction images show surface variations that are interpreted as areas of varying lipid film coverage. In addition, topographic images of the fibers show the presence of small pores, which become increasingly prevalent upon solvent extraction.     

Analysis of fluorescence from algae fossils of the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo formation of China by confocal laser scanning microscope

Chinese algae fossils can provide unique information about the evolution of the early life. Thin sections of Neoproterozoic algae fossils, from Guizhou, China, were studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy, and algae fossils were fluorescenced at different wavelengths when excited by laser light of 488 nm, 476 nm, and 568 nm wavelength. When illuminated by 488 nm laser light, images of the algae fossils were sharper and better defined than when illuminated by 476 nm and 568 nm laser light. The algae fossils fluoresce at a wide range of emission wavelengths. The three-dimensional images of the fluorescent algae fossils were compared with the transmission images taken by light microscope. We found that the fluorescence image of the confocal laser scanning microscope in a single optical section could pass for the transmission image taken by a light microscope. We collected images at different sample depths and made a three-dimensional reconstruction of the algae fossils. And on the basis of the reconstruction of the three-dimensional fluorescent images, we conclude that the two algae fossils in our present study are red algae.     

两种润滑脂中基础油提取方法的比较

为研究不同提取方法对锂基润滑脂中基础油提取效果的影响，采用12-羟基硬脂酸体系稠化基础油制备锂基润滑脂，然后采用石油醚提取法和压力分油提取法分别提取制备的润滑脂中的基础油，并分析2种不同方法提取的基础油与原稠化基础油在黏度、族组成、低温性能和组分构成方面的差别。结果表明：2种不同方法提取的基础油的红外谱图与稠化基础油的红外谱图基本一致，族组成和苯胺点也与稠化基础油基本一致；压力分油提取法提取的基础油的黏度、黏指、倾点和蒸发损失与稠化基础油一致；石油醚提取法提取的基础油的黏度与混合基础油中的小黏度基础油基本一致，黏指和倾点与润滑脂稠度相关，蒸发损失略大于原稠化基础油。对于润滑脂的剖析，2种方法结合使用可以得出较为准确的结果。     

Identification of novel,non-edible oil seeds via scanning electron microscopy as potential feedstock for green synthesis of biodiesel

In the present era, environmental glitches associated with extensive emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) and energy crises caused by exhausting fossil fuel reservoirs has diverted researcher's interest toward alternative and renewable energy sources. Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable, and sustainable alternative to petro-diesel. Biodiesel synthesized from non-edible seed oils is preferred due its cost effectiveness and eco-friendly nature. Hence, our present study focused on investigation and identification of micromorphological characters of six novel, non-edible seed oil feedstock for biodiesel production via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Results of light microscopy of seeds revealed distinct variation in seed size (15.8–1.8 mm in length and 9.4–1.1 in width), shape (round to Cuneiform), and color (from black to yellowish green). Non-edible seed oil content fall in range of 28–38% (wt/wt). Free fatty acid (FFA) content varied from 0.56 to 2.06 mg KOH/g. Multivariate analysis was performed to investigate correlation between three significant variables of seed oil yielding feedstock such as potential for biodiesel synthesis, oil content, and FFA content via principal component analysis. Ultra morphological investigation of seeds surfaces via SEM exhibited distinctive variation in surface sculpturing, cell arrangement, cell shape, periclinal wall shape, margins, protuberances, and anticlinal wall shape. Seed surface sculpturing varied from reticulate, semitectate, wrinkled, rugose, papillate, perforate, and striate. Periclinal wall arrangements confirmed variation from glabrous, raised, depressed, elevated, smooth, pentagonal, entire, and ripple margins. Whereas, anticlinal walls pattern demonstrated variation from angular, smooth, wavy, deep, dentate, entire, irregular, puzzled, elongated, curved, and depressed. Finally, it was concluded from obtained results that SEM could be a possible useful tool in disclosing veiled micromorphological characters of non-edible oil yielding seeds, which provides useful information to researchers for their correct, authentic identification, and classification in modern synthetic system.     

集散控制系统在生物柴油生产过程中的应用

针对生物柴油连续型和间歇型工序混合生产过程的特殊工艺与控制要求,从工程应用角度出发,通过分析生物柴油工艺过程特点,提出一种集散控制方案,分别控制催化剂溶解槽、酯交换反应器、甲醇蒸馏塔等关键部件,提高制备过程自动化水平。应用实例表明,该解决方案能确保生物柴油生产过程安全、稳定运行。     

调味品中苏丹红类色素测定方法的研究

建立了用HPLC测定调味品中偶氮类化工染料苏丹I～IV的测定方法。利用正己烷[酱类样品用丙酮-正己烷(1:3,V/V)]提取,经氧化铝柱净化,40mL丙酮-正己烷(20:80,V/V)洗脱,洗脱液用氮气吹干,并用乙腈定容、测定。最低检测限为10ng·g-1,在μg/kg级添加水平的回收率为35%～60%,mg/kg级添加水平的回收率为74%～112%,变异系数小于8%,准确性和精密度较高。此方法能很好的检测出调味品中的被禁用的非食用色素苏丹I～IV。     

应用荧光光谱法检测蓝藻生物量

本研究应用荧光分光光度计,通过对水华鱼腥藻活体荧光光谱的扫描,确定了蓝藻藻蓝蛋白荧光测定的最佳荧光激发波长为620nm,荧光发射波长为650nm,建立了水华鱼腥生物量与藻蓝蛋白特征荧光强度的线性检测关系,表明应用荧光光谱法检测藻蓝蛋白荧光强度反应蓝藻生物量具有特异性和可行性,该方法具有简便、快速、操作简单、样品无需处理等优点。为测定蓝藻生物量提供了新的检测方法。     

Critical-point drying versus freeze drying for scanning electron microscopy: a quantitative and qualitative study on isolated hepatocytes

Critical-point drying and freeze drying were compared both quantitatively and qualitatively as preparative procedures for scanning electron microscopy. Isolated hepatocytes were used as model cells. Nomarski differential interference contrast microscopy was used for light microscopic measurements of the hepatocytes in the unfixed, the glutaraldehyde fixed, the glutaraldehyde + OsO₄ fixed, the critical-point dried and the freeze dried states. Critical-point dried hepatocytes were found to shrink to 38% of glutaraldehyde + OsO₄ fixed volume, whereas optimal freeze dried hepatocytes (frozen in water saturated with chloroform and freeze dried at 183 K for 84 h) were found to shrink to 51% of glutaraldehyde + OsO₄ fixed volume. Transmission and scanning electron micrographs of the critical-point dried cells showed well-preserved ultrastructure and surface structure. Micrographs of the freeze dried cells showed ultrastructure destroyed by internal ice crystals and surface structure destroyed by external ice crystals. Double-fixed isolated hepatocytes were shown to swell during storage in buffer and to shrink during storage after critical-point drying. For low magnification scanning electron microscopy (up to about 3000 times) both critical-point drying and freeze drying can be used. However, for high magnification scanning electron microscopy, critical-point drying is superior to freeze drying.     

An X-ray microscopy perspective on the effect of glutaraldehyde fixation on cells

X-ray microscopy (XRM) is the only microscopy technique that can provide high-resolution (30 nm) imaging of biological specimens without the need to fix, stain or section them. We aim to determine the effect, if any, of glutaraldehyde fixation on algae cells from the XRM perspective and thus provide beneficial information for both X-ray and electron microscopists on artefacts induced by glutaraldehyde fixation. Three species of microalgae, Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena spiroides and Chlorella vulgaris, were used in this study. XRM images were obtained from unfixed and glutaraldehyde-fixed cells and cell diameter and percentage X-ray absorbency were measured. The mean diameter of cells from fixed preparations was smaller than from unfixed preparations; the mean diameter of M. aeruginosa cells was significantly reduced from 3.92 µm in unfixed cells to 3.43 µm in fixed cells (P < 0.05); in C. vulgaris the diameter of cells was also significantly reduced from 3.50 µm in unfixed to 2.98 µm in fixed samples (P < 0.05); whereas there was no significant reduction in the diameter of A. spiroides cells (4.04–3.90 µm). The protein crosslinking mechanism of glutaraldehyde probably generated free water molecules, which play an important role in radiation damage induced by X-rays. This was seen as mass loss and cell shrinkage, which in the present study occurred more frequently in fixed cells than in unfixed cells. In addition, we demonstrated that the uptake of glutaraldehyde by cells makes all protein constituents in the cell organize into a closely packed configuration, thus causing a rise in the percentage of X-ray absorbency. In fixed cells, this rise was approximately by a factor of two compared with unfixed samples in which protein constituents inside the cell are arranged in their native form.     

基于图像分析和野点检测的航空发动机磨损状态识别

研究了基于发动机滑油滤磨屑图像的磨损状态自动识别技术。首先采用最大熵法和数学形态学方法,提取滑油滤磨屑图像中反映磨损状态的特征量;然后采集反映正常状态的航空发动机滑油滤图像,通过图像分析与特征提取,构造出仅包含正常样本的训练样本集,最后用野点检测方法对训练样本进行学习,并使用遗传算法对野点检测参数进行优化,得到了滑油滤磨屑图像的正常域,并以此来识别航空发动机磨损状态的严重程度。开发了发动机滑油滤监控系统(engine oil filter monitoring system,EOFMS),实现了基于野点检测的磨屑图像识别功能,并利用实际航空发动机滑油滤磨屑图像进行了实验分析,结果验证了该方法的有效性。