Episodic spatial memory in adulthood.

Two experiments examined age-related differences in memory for spatial location information in a museum exhibit (Exp 1) and in a secretarial office (Exp 2). In Exp 1, Ss were the visitors to the exhibit (N?=?302, 15–74 yrs of age), and memory was assessed using a map test. In Exp 2, Ss were 64 young adults (M?=?21.2 yrs) and 32 older adults (M?=?71.2 yrs), and memory was assessed using both a map test and a relocation test. The relocation test required Ss to replace the to-be-remembered targets where they appeared at study. Exp 1 showed an age-related decline in spatial memory performance, and it placed the onset of this decline in the 6th decade of life. Exp 2 showed an age-related decline on both tests, but age effects were smaller on the relocation test than on the map test, and when Ss knew that spatial memory would be tested than when they were not informed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in cardiovascular reactions to mental stress tests in women.

Tested 84 healthy, sedentary women in the laboratory during performance of difficult and easy problem-solving tasks. Ss were divided into 3 equal age groups: 19–32 yrs, 33–43 yrs, and 44–60 yrs. Baseline systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure increased with age, whereas skin conductance level was lower in older Ss. Initial SBP reactions to tasks were positively related to age, even after controlling for baseline blood pressure, aerobic fitness, and Framingham Type A Scale (S. G. Haynes et al; see PA, Vol 68:10702) behavior scores. There were no differences in heart rate (HR) or additional HR reactions, so the anticipated decline in cardiac sympathetic response with age was not observed. Mechanisms underlying age-related reactions to mental stress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's recognition of rights violations in counseling.

Evaluated the capacity of children and adolescents to comprehend and protect their rights in a mental health setting in 60 male Ss. 20 Ss at each of 3 age levels (8.2–9.7 yrs, 15.2–16.0 yrs, and 20.4–23.1 yrs) were explained 6 rights—refusal of treatment, knowing the reason for refusal, withholding information from counselors, refusal to allow videotaping of a treatment session, confidentiality, and the right of access to records—and then asked to view videotapes in which these rights were violated. Results show that, for 9-yr-old Ss, the experimental effect of providing information about rights was minimal; both experimental Ss and noninformed controls demonstrated low scores on measures of recognition of rights violation and protection of rights. At ages 15 and 21, experimental Ss demonstrated significantly higher scores on both measures than did control Ss. There was no significant difference in the experimental effect between the 15- and 21-yr-old Ss, which suggests that by age 15, the average adolescent is fully capable of comprehending and exercising his or her rights. Guidelines are proposed regarding the provision of information about rights to minors who receive mental health services. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accounting for age differences on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Decreased working memory, not inflexibility.

Two experiments examined the role of cognitive inflexibility and reduced working memory in age-related declines on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Ss for the first experiment were 85 younger adults (mean age 19.7 yrs) and 76 older adults (mean age 70.3 yrs). For the second experiment, Ss were 48 younger and 48 older adults (mean ages 20.3 yrs and 69.8 yrs, respectively). Both standard scoring procedures and newly developed scores were used to measure each construct, and modifications of the test further evaluated the role of working memory. Results indicated that age differences are not due to cognitive inflexibility but that for a subset of older adults errors are associated with a reduction in the amount of information that can be stored or processed in working memory. These age differences disappear, however, when visual cues provide information about the immediately preceding sort. The authors conclude by proposing a decline in updating working memory as the explanation that can best account for the entire pattern of age differences on this test. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paired-associate learning and priming effects in amnesia: A neuropsychological study.

Conducted 4 experiments investigating the role of priming effects in paired-associate learning. Ss for all 4 experiments were 5 male and 3 female alcoholics (mean age 53.8 yrs; WAIS—R IQs 85–203) with Korsakoff syndrome. Control Ss were 26 male alcoholics (mean age 47.6 yrs). Exp I illustrated the distinction between the memory impairment of amnesic (Korsakoff) Ss and their intact priming ability. In Exp II, amnesic Ss showed good paired-associate learning for related word pairs but controls performed significantly better. Exp II also showed that the forgetting of related word pairs by amnesic Ss followed the same time course as the decay of word priming. Exp III showed that amnesic Ss were as good as controls at learning related word pairs when word-association tests were used. Exp IV showed that amnesic Ss exhibited normal priming when they were asked to free associate to words that were semantically related to previously presented words. Results indicate that both priming effects and paired-associate learning of related words depended on activation, a process that is preserved in amnesia. Activation is a transient phenomenon presumed to operate on and facilitate access to preexisting representations. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Standardization of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised for persons 75 years and older.

This project expanded the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) normative tables for the Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs and age-corrected subtest scores to persons aged 75 yrs and older. A sample of 130 normal volunteers was selected according to 1983 census data on the variables of age, education, sex, and race. Means for age and education were 81.24 yrs (SD?=?5.24) and 9.54 yrs (SD?=?2.50). There were 74 White women, 42 White men, 9 Black women, and 5 Black men. Ss lived in the states of Kansas (60.7%), Missouri (34.6%), and Iowa (4.6%), with 90% residing in urban centers and 10% in rural communities. All Ss were administered a complete WAIS—R by trained examiners. On the basis of the raw scores, Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ conversion tables were developed separately for persons 75–79 yrs of age (n?=?60) and aged 80 yrs and older (n?=?70). Conversion tables (M?=?10; SD?=?3) for age-corrected scaled scores were also developed for both age groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of verbal supraspan in normal adults and patients with head trauma or unilateral cerebrovascular accident.

Provided a normative data base for a measure of verbal supraspan based on 301 neurologically intact adults (aged 18–91 yrs) and examined the test's clinical sensitivity in 3 patient groups. Data from 55 patients with severe head trauma, 38 with right hemisphere and cerebrovascular accident (CVA), and 15 with left hemisphere CVA reveal significant age-related differences, with older Ss performing below levels obtained by younger ones. Group data reveal that Ss in all 3 groups performed significantly below levels obtained by age-matched controls. Supraspan scores did not correlate appreciably with years of education. However, scores on the supraspan test correlated modestly with Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) Information and Block Design scores, suggesting that task performance may be dependent in part on the S's general level of cognitive functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hyperactive and hypoxic children: Signal detection, sustained attention, and behavior.

Two parameters from signal detection theory—perceptual sensitivity and decision criterion cutoff scores—were used in the analysis of vigilance performance of 30 hyperactive (mean age 8.5 yrs), 30 hypoxic (mean age 9 yrs), and 47 normal (mean age 8.8 yrs) children. Signal detection analyses of 3 Continuous Performance Test conditions indicated that with increasing age, Ss obtained significantly more hits, fewer false alarms, higher perceptual sensitivity, and responded with greater caution. Overall deficits in signal discrimination (perceptual sensitivity level) were obtained for both the hyperactive and hypoxic Ss when compared to normal age-mates. Whereas the hypoxic Ss demonstrated additional decrements in sustaining attention (sensitivity decrement over time), the hyperactive Ss were impaired by low-response caution, reflecting difficulty inhibiting impulsive responses. Possible differences in hyperactive sample characteristics across studies and time-related recovery factors following hypoxia are discussed. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults.

Generativity is conceived as a configuration of psychosocial features constellated around the goal of providing for the next generation. This study used a stratified random sampling of young (ages 22–27 yrs), midlife (ages 37–42 yrs), and older (ages 67–72 yrs) adults to examine age–cohort differences in 4 generativity features: generative concern, commitments, actions, and narration. Although prevailing views on generativity (e.g., E. H. Erikson, 1963) predict a peak in midlife and decline thereafter, support for this developmental hypothesis was mixed. Midlife Ss scored higher than young and older Ss on concern and actions in a second administration of measures, but not in the first. Generative commitments and narration showed high scores for both midlife and older Ss and relatively low scores for young Ss. Generative concern, assessed with the Loyola Generativity Scale, was positively associated with life satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk and resilience in early mental development.

Examined mental development scores for 2 groups of at-risk twins throughout their childhood, those classified as small for gestational age (SGA), and those twins falling below 1,750 g birthweight. The Ss were recruited as newborns—about 30 new pairs were added each year—and the total sample included 450 pairs of twins. Ss were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at age 24 mo and the WPPSI at age 6 yrs. Results show that the SGA Ss showed only a modest deficit in IQ scores as compared to the full twin Ss, and thus these small-for-date Ss did not appear to be at special risk. The Ss below 1,750 g, however, did show a very significant deficit in IQ scores throughout childhood. When the recovery patterns were examined for this group, upper SES Ss appeared to recover completely, whereas lower SES Ss remained significantly depressed. Mother's education was significantly related to recovery from 24 mo onward, which suggests that maternal intelligence plays a prominent role in determining the level of recovery. When monozygotic Ss of markedly unequal birth weight were compared, the twins who weighed less than 1,750 g attained the same level of IQ scores at 6 yrs as did their heavier co-twins. Among these genetic replicates, the initially powerful effects of low birth weight did not exert a long-term handicapping effect on mental development. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

WAIS—R abbreviated forms in the elderly: A comparison of the Satz-Mogel with a seven-subtest short form.

The Satz-Mogel abbreviation of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R) was compared with a 7-subtest short form (L. C. Ward, see record 1991-00137-001) in samples of normal and neurologically impaired elderly persons 75 yrs and older. The normals were 130 Ss from the old-age WAIS—R standardization sample, and the brain-damaged group consisted of 40 men with medically diagnosed brain dysfunction (average age 79.5 yrs). The short forms were highly similar in administration times, correlations with the WAIS—R IQs, estimation of the average IQ scores, and in classification of intelligence for both the normal and neurologically impaired Ss. Finally, both short forms correctly estimated significant Verbal IQ–Performance IQ discrepancies about 75% of the time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in self-perceptions of Type A traits.

Examined whether self-perceptions of Type A (coronary prone) behavior changed during adulthood in 211 Ss from 4 age groups (30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60–69 yrs) who completed a Type A scale derived from the Adjective Checklist. Ss were asked to provide both concurrent and retrospective self-assessments of Type A behaviors. It was found that age and self-rated Type A traits were not significantly related. However, changes in self-perceptions of Type A traits did appear to be age-related: Ss aged 30–39 yrs perceived themselves as becoming more Type A, while Ss aged 40+ yrs perceived themselves as becoming less Type A. This shift in Type A self-perception was most prominent in Ss aged 60+ yrs. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological changes in adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes.

Assessed the neurobehavioral status of 40 12–19 yr olds with a long history (at least 3 yrs) of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and of 40 demographically similar nondiabetic adolescents. A detailed social and medical history was obtained from parents, and the degree of recent metabolic control was determined by examining the glycosolated hemoglobin values of diabetic Ss. Ss under age 16 yrs were given 7 subtests of the WISC—R; Ss aged 16 yrs and older were given the same subtests from the WAIS. Ss also completed tests that assessed associative learning and memory; visuospatial ability; speed, dexterity, and visuomotor integration; CFF; and self-concept. Results show that diabetics performed within normal limits on all tests, although significant between-groups differences did appear on measures of verbal intelligence, visuomotor coordination, and CFF. Although it could be argued that these results are indicative of structural brain damage, the possibility is discussed that the differences observed may be a function of transient metabolic abnormalities at the time of testing or, alternately, may be a reflection of the behavioral changes associated with having a life-threatening illness. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of mental growth: Birth to thirty-six years.

Reports findings of the Berkeley (California) Growth Study, a 36-yr longitudinal study of mental development. 74 full-term, healthy infants of White English-speaking parents, were studied over 7 mo. 63 Ss were followed for at least 3 yrs, 48 Ss were seen regularly over 18 yrs, and 54 Ss were interviewed and tested at age 36 yrs. Measures included newly developed tests of 1st-yr mental precocity, the Block Q-Sort, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Results reflect stability over the 36 yrs in both personality variables and mental abilities. Boys' high verbal scores correlated with calmness, positive responsiveness, and activeness: Girls' high verbal scores correlated with shyness at 10–24 mo and possibly unhappiness at 10–22 mo. While boys' behaviors and intelligence correlated with maternal behavior in the 1st 3 yrs through age 18 yrs, girls' corresponded to parental abilities. This suggests that girls are more resilient and less permanently affected by early experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intimations of mortality: Integrative simplification as a precursor of death.

Tested the hypothesis that a "terminal drop" in cognitive functioning occurs a few years prior to death. Letters written during the last 10 yrs of life were selected from the published correspondence of 18 eminent individuals (such as Freud and Napoleon) and scored for integrative complexity—a variable related to the degree of integration and differentiation in information processing. The overall analysis supported the terminal drop hypothesis. The predicted decline in complexity was found during the 5 yrs prior to death among Ss who died of protracted illness or old age but only in the year immediately prior to death among Ss who died suddenly. There was no relation between complexity and age, and the mean complexity scores of men were higher than those of women. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in recognition memory and frequency judgments for planned versus performed activities.

24 young (18.25–27.92 yrs old) and 24 elderly (62.75–80.42 yrs old) adults received a series of tasks (e.g., card sorting, arithmetic) that were planned for performance and subsequently performed with varying frequencies under intentional- and incidental-memory conditions to investigate age differences in active memory. Following the series of tasks, Ss estimated the frequencies with which task activities had been both performed and planned. Recognition-memory scores derived from performance-judgment scores revealed a significant age deficit in Ss' identification of those activities that had been performed earlier. However, memory was unaffected by intentionality at each age level. Results imply a modest age deficit for encoding rehearsal-independent, episodic events, but no age differences were found for reality monitoring: Elderly Ss were as proficient as young Ss in discriminating between planning and performance of an activity in terms of absolute frequency-judgment scores. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-modal and intramodal transfer as predictors of mental development in full-term and preterm infants.

25 full-term (FT) and 33 preterm (PT) infants who had participated in studies of cross-modal (CM) and intramodal (IM) transfer at 12 mo of age were seen at older ages to assess the predictive validity of these early measures for later cognition. FT Ss were administered the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 24 mo of age; PT Ss were administered these scales at 12 and 24 mo of age, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Form L-M) at 34 and 40 mo of age, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration at 6 yrs of age. For FT Ss, both 12-mo measures were significantly related to 24-mo Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) scores; for PT Ss, both 12-mo measures were related not only to 24-mo Bayley MDI but to each subsequent measure of cognitive outcome through 6 yrs. 12-mo IM scores were highly correlated with the 6-yr assessment of visual–motor integration. A measure of object permanence obtained at 12 mo was also related to cognitive outcome, but not so consistently as were the other 2 12-mo measures. Although parental education was a significant predictor beginning at 24 mo, multiple regression analyses indicated that the CM and the IM measures substantially increased the percentage of variance in outcome that could be accounted for by parental education alone. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concomitant eyeblink and heart rate classical conditioning in young, middle-aged, and elderly human subjects.

Pavlovian heart rate (HR) and eyeblink (EB) conditioning were assessed in 4 groups of Ss who differed in age: young?=?19–33 yrs, young middle-aged?=?35–48 yrs, old middle-aged?=?50–63 yrs, and old?=?66–78 yrs. A 100-msec corneal airpuff was the unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS) and a 600-msec tone was the CS. A nonassociative control group received explicitly unpaired tone and airpuff presentations. All Ss were studied for 2 100-trial sessions separated by approximately 7 days. An impairment in acquisition of both the EB and HR responses occurred in the old and middle-age Ss, but all age groups showed significantly greater conditioning than did the control group. Slight increases in performance resulted from a 2nd session of training. These findings suggest and age-related impairment in a general associative process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How much and how fast: Rapid processing of spoken language in later adulthood.

Conducted 2 experiments, using 36 older adults (aged 61–82 yrs) and 24 undergraduates, in which Ss listened to and immediately recalled sentences that were systematically varied in speech rate and number of propositions. Although recall performance of the older Ss showed a disproportionate decline when speech rate was increased, older Ss, as well as the younger Ss, were able to recall sentences of increasing propositional densities. It was also found that the tendency to recall a greater proportion of main ideas than details (the levels effect) was enhanced by increased propositional density and depressed by increased speech rate and increased age. These results are discussed in terms of an age-related change in the rate at which information can be processed in working memory. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unilateral lesions and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised: No sex differences.

Tested sex differences previously reported in WAIS—R scores (Verbal IQ vs Performance IQ discrepancies) in male patients with unilateral lesions by administering the WAIS—R to 31 Ss (16 males [mean age 42.6 yrs] and 15 females [mean age 38.4 yrs]) with right-hemisphere lesions and to 32 Ss (17 males [mean age 32 yrs] and 15 females [mean age 40.7 yrs]) with left hemisphere lesions. Results show that both males and females had expected discrepancies between Verbal IQ and Performance IQ. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)