Quantitative Measurement Methods for the Gas-wetness of Gas/Liquid/Solid Systems

Gas-well production will be increased greatly after altering the wettability of porous media from preferential liquid-wetting to preferential gas-wetting in gas-condensate reservoirs. Moreover, the degree of gas wetness strongly affects the production. Thus, the study of gas-wet quantitative measurement methods is of great significance. The wetting ability parameter of gas versus liquid ζ_G-L is calculated from the proposed formula in the sessile drop method, and the gas contact angle θ _G in the captive bubble method was separately used to measure gas wettability and propose the wettability criteria. Also, the concept of gas wettability was defined. After treated by fluorocarbon polymer (Zonyl8740), glass slides, and glass capillary tubes got tested on gas wetness. The results show that with the increase of the concentration of Zonyl8740 solution, the surface free energy of glass slides decreases and gas-wetness of them is enhanced. And capillary tube rise tests showed the same conclusion, demonstrating the rationality and applicability of quantitative methods.     

改变低渗透砂岩亲水性油气层润湿性对其相渗透率的影响

为了研究改变低渗透砂岩亲水性油气层润湿性对其气水相有效渗透率的影响，用自主研发的一种能改变亲水岩石表面性质（由亲水改为中性弱亲油）的润湿反转剂LW-1进行了实验研究。实验结果表明，用LW-1处理低渗透亲水气层岩心，改变其岩石表面的润湿性后，可使气体有效渗透率平均提高1．06倍；处理低渗透亲水油层岩心，改变其岩石表面的润湿性后，可使水相有效渗透率平均提高2．6倍。认为改变低渗透亲水油气层的岩石表面润湿性，是降低其遭受侵入水伤害程度、提高增注能力和改善压裂增产过程中侵入水返排效果的有效手段之一。     

低渗透气藏低压低产气井解水锁技术研究及应用

川西中浅层低渗透致密砂岩气藏储层物性差,含水饱和度高,气井产能较低,普遍存在水锁伤害,严重影响了采气中后期气井的正常生产.以室内实验为手段,研究了水锁伤害程度,定量分析了解水锁剂对天然气渗流的改善作用.研究结果表明,低渗透致密砂岩气井采气中后期近井储层积液会引起严重的水锁伤害,影响了天然气在储层中的渗流能力,解水锁剂可降低近井储层的含水饱和度,改善岩心渗透率,降低储层中天然气启动压差.解水锁剂HY在A井现场试验后,该井在油压和套压变化不大的情况下,5个月累积增产气量为24×104 m3,单井增加经济效益为19×104元.     

含水凝析气相态特征及非平衡压降过程产液特征

气态水的存在对凝析气藏相态特征的影响不容忽视,常规的相态测试过程无法模拟含水凝析气田开发过程中近井带的非平衡压降过程的实际产液特征。利用PVT筒开展了含气态水凝析油气体系相态特征实验,研究了气态水对凝析气相态特征的影响,并通过缩短凝析气体系定容衰竭过程的平衡时间,模拟含水凝析气田开发过程近井带的非平衡压降衰竭过程,对比分析了非平衡压降过程含水凝析气体系中凝析油、水的抽提蒸发效应。结果表明,气态水的存在引起了凝析油气体系中重质含量的增加,导致露点压力升高,反凝析提前,最大反凝析压力提高,反凝析液量增加。含水凝析油气体系在非平衡压降衰竭过程中,由于气液相体系未达平衡,导致液相滞后析出并随气相运动一起被采出,造成凝析油采出程度和产水量提高,且非平衡压降速度越大,凝析油采出程度越高。因此,凝析气田近井带的非平衡压降有利于凝析油的开采并缓解液锁的发生。     

The Effect of Water Vaporization on the Well Productivity of Gas Condensate Reservoirs

Well productivity is a crucial concern in predicting the performance of many gas condensate reservoirs. Accurate forecasting of gas-condensate well productivity usually requires fine-grid simulation to model the formation of the liquid bank and to account for high-velocity phenomena and changes in relative permeability at high capillary numbers. At early stages of production, the pressure drop in the near-wellbore region builds up the molar content of water in gas. This, in turn, results in water vaporization, and hence a drop in the connate water saturation. When water vaporization occurs, pores that were formerly filled by connate water now becomes occupied by gas and condensate only. This causes a change in gas and condensate saturations near the wellbore that can affect the well productivity. No lucid numerical simulation approach considering this effect is suggested in the literature. The authors investigated the effects of water vaporization on the near-wellbore region by compositional simulator of GEM. Enhancement of gas well productivity is observed.     

一种相对渗透率调节剂的静态吸附研究

油田进入中高含水期后,为控制产水量,可以注入相对渗透率调节剂(RPM)。RPM可以大幅降低水相渗透率,而对油相渗透率影响很小甚至没有影响。RPM在地层岩石中的吸附性能是评价其性能的重要指标,为此笔者通过室内试验分析了阳离子聚合物型相对渗透率调节剂链节的荷电性、地层水矿化度、固体表面润湿性对RPM吸附过程的影响。结果表明,RPM在石英砂及油砂上的吸附量主要受静电引力及固体表面润湿性的影响,聚合物链节及岩石带电性的匹配对RPM的吸附具有重要影响;RPM的吸附量随着矿化度的增大而增大;RPM在石英砂和油砂上的吸附均符合单层吸附规律,且在油砂上的吸附量远小于在石英砂上的吸附量;RPM的吸附可使石英片表面润湿性由油湿向弱水湿方向转变。      

Fluid flow in gas condensate reservoirs: the interplay of forces and their relative strengths

Natural production from gas condensate reservoirs is characterized by gas condensation and liquid dropout in the reservoir, first in the near wellbore volume, then as a cylindrical shaped region, dynamically developing into the reservoir volume. The effects of liquid condensation are reduced productivity and loss of production. Successful forecast of well productivity and reservoir production depends on detailed understanding of the effect of various forces acting on fluid flow in time and space. The production form gas condensate reservoirs is thus indirectly related to the interplay of fundamental forces, such as the viscosity, the capillary, the gravitational and the inertial force and their relative strengths, demonstrated by various dimensionless numbers.Dimensionless numbers are defined and calculated for all pressure and space coordinates in a test reservoir. Various regions are identified where certain forces are more important than others. Based on reservoir pressure development, liquid condensation and the numerical representation of dimensionless numbers, a conceptual understanding of a varying reservoir permeability has been reached.The material balance, the reservoir fluid flow and the wellbore flow calculations are performed on a cylindrical reservoir model. The ratios between fundamental forces are calculated and dimensionless numbers defined. The interplay of forces, demonstrated by these numbers, are calculated as function of radial dimension and reservoir pressure.     

Efficiency of enhanced oil recovery by injection of low-salinity water in barium-containing carbonate reservoirs

When low-salinity water containing sulfate ions is injected into carbonate reservoirs, rock dissolution and in situ precipitation occur, altering rock permeability and wettability. Particularly, when barium ions are present in formation water, they react chemically with \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\), and BaSO₄ is precipitated. These reactions can cause a serious impact on the efficiency of enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to identify EOR efficiency induced by low-salinity waterflooding (LSWF) when Ba²⁺ is present in carbonate reservoirs. From the experimental results, it was confirmed that the permeability calculated by the measured pressure difference was improved because of rock dissolution predominating over in situ precipitation for the case of low Ba²⁺ concentrations. In the analysis of wettability alteration through the measurements of relative permeabilities before and after LSWF, the higher Ba²⁺ concentration case consumed more \({\text{SO}}_{4}^{2 - }\) in precipitating the BaSO₄, resulting in weaker wettability alteration due to the reduction of sulfate activity. These phenomena ultimately influenced EOR efficiency, i.e., the oil recovery was greater for the lower Ba²⁺ concentration.     

注水开发油藏润湿性变化及其对渗流的影响

为提高水驱开发油藏采收率预测精度,研究了油藏岩石润湿性与相对渗透率之间的变化规律及其对两相渗流的影响。采用室内润湿性实验测定方法,对水驱开发油藏润湿指数与含水饱和度的关系进行了定量表征,导出了适合润湿性变化型油藏的两相渗流方程,建立了变润湿性水驱开发油田的采收率预测方法。润湿实验结果表明:所测岩心的润湿指数的对数与取心油层的含水饱和度呈近似线性关系。相对渗透率实验所测的代表低含水期到高含水期岩心的油水两相等渗点对应的含水饱和度由41%增加到53%,亲水程度增强。一维模型计算结果表明,含水率达到98%时,油润湿和强水润湿性油藏的预测采收率分别为52.7%和73.3%。研究揭示的水驱油藏岩石润湿性变化规律和建立的数学模型,可为更加准确地预测水驱油采收率提供参考。      

Experimental and modeling study of wettability alteration through seawater injection in limestone: a case study

Water flooding is widely applied for pressure maintenance or increasing the oil recovery of reservoirs. The heterogeneity and wettability of formation rocks strongly affect the oil recovery efficiency in carbonate reservoirs. During seawater injection in carbonate formations, the interactions between potential seawater ions and the carbonate rock at a high temperature can alter the wettability to a more water-wet condition. This paper studies the wettability of one of the Iranian carbonate reservoirs which has been under Persian Gulf seawater injection for more than 10 years. The wettability of the rock is determined by indirect contact angle measurement using Rise in Core technique. Further, the characterization of the rock surface is evaluated by molecular kinetic theory(MKT) modeling. The data obtained from experiments show that rocks are undergoing neutral wetting after the aging process. While the wettability of low permeable samples changes to be slightly water-wet,the wettability of the samples with higher permeability remains unchanged after soaking in seawater. Experimental data and MKT analysis indicate that wettability alteration of these carbonate rocks through prolonged seawater injection might be insignificant.     

Enhanced oil recovery from carbonate reservoirs by spontaneous imbibition of low salinity water

An experimental study was performed to investigate the impact of low salinity water on wettability alteration in carbonate core samples from southern Iranian reservoirs by spontaneous imbibition. In this paper, the effect of temperature, salinity, permeability and connate water were investigated by comparing the produced hydrocarbon curves. Contact angle measurements were taken to confirm the alteration of surface wettability of porous media. Oil recovery was enhanced by increasing the dilution ratio of sea water, and there existed an optimum dilution ratio at which the highest oil recovery was achieved. In addition, temperature had a very significant impact on oil recovery from carbonate rocks. Furthermore, oil recovery from a spontaneous imbibition process was directly proportional to the permeability of the core samples. The presence of connate water saturation inside the porous media facilitated oil production significantly. Also, the oil recovery from porous media was highly dependent on ion repulsion/attraction activity of the rock surface which directly impacts on the wettability conditions. Finally, the highest ion attraction percentage was measured for sodium while there was no significant change in pH for all experiments.     

Evaluation of gas wettability and its effects on fluid distribution and fluid flow in porous media

The special gas wettability phenomenon of reservoir rocks has been recognized by more and more researchers.It has a significant effect on efficient development of unconventional reservoirs.First,based on the preferentially gas-covered ability and surface free energy changes,definition and evaluation methods have been established.Second,a method for altering rock wettability and its mechanisms have been studied,surface oriented phenomena of functional groups with low surface energy are the fundamental reason for gas wettability alteration of rock.Third,the effect of gas wettability on the surface energy,electrical properties and dilatability are investigated.Last,the effects of gas wettability on capillary pressure,oil/gas/water distribution and flow are investigated with capillary tubes and etchedglass network models.The gas wettability theory of reservoir rocks has been initially established,which provides theoretical support for the efficient production of unconventional reservoirs and has great significance.     

Operation optimization of plugged screen cleanup by rotary water jetting

The rotary water jetting is one of the most important techniques for horizontal well cleanup.The jet flow is used to remove plugging particles from sand control screens to recover their permeability.Currently,the operation optimization of this technique depends mainly on experience due to absence of applicable evaluation and design models for removing plugging materials.This paper presents an experimental setup to simulate the cleanup process of plugged screens by rotary water jetting on the surface and to evaluate the performance of a jetting tool.Using real plugged screens pulled from damaged wells,a series of tests were performed,and the qualitative relationships between the cleanup efficiency and various operational parameters,such as the type of fluids used,flow rate,mode of tool movement,etc.,were obtained.The test results indicated that the cleanup performance was much better when the rotary jetting tool moved and stopped periodically for a certain time than that when it reciprocated at a constant speed.To be exact,it was desirable for the rotary jetting tool to move for 1.5-2 m and stop for 2-4 min,which was called the ＂move-stop-move＂ mode.Good cleanup performance could be obtained at high flow rates,and the flow rate was recommended to be no lower than 550-600 L/min.The test results also indicated that complex mud acid was better than clean water in terms of cleanup performance.Good cleanup efficiency and high screen permeability recovery could be achieved for severely plugged screens.Rotary jetting is preferred for the cleanup of horizontal wells with severely plugged screens,and the screen permeability recovery ratio may reach 20％ if optimized operation parameters were used.     

Application of ultrasonic irradiation for well deliverability improvement in gas-condensate reservoirs

In gas condensate reservoirs the process of condensation around the wellbore, when the pressure falls below the dewpoint, creates a condensate bank that can drastically reduce well productivity, requiring additional expensive wells to maintain the production level. Conventional remedial methods relying on removing the condensate bank are not generally long lasting, requiring repeated treatment.In this paper we present results of a study on the feasibility of using ultrasonic energy to alleviate the above problem by reducing the flow resistance in this region. Ultrasonic excitation of gas condensate systems was visually examined using high-pressure glass capillary tubes and micromodels with realistic pore patterns, simulating pores of a reservoir rock.Capillary tube experiments demonstrated that ultrasound radiation caused the gas-condensate interface to oscillate. In addition to destabilising the static equilibrium position of the interface, this oscillation also causes local mixing effects at the interface, lowering the effective liquid/gas interfacial tension. Results of our flow experiments in high-pressure glass micromodels showed that a significant amount of condensate was mobilised and recovered as a result of the application of ultrasound energy. We also show theoretically, that the radiation pressure caused by ultrasound waves exerts a net force on a fluid/fluid interface placed along the line of propagation of the wave. This force is a function of the phase difference between the applied acoustic field and the oscillation of the interface with the force being maximum at the resonance frequency.     

氟化物对致密砂岩气体渗流能力的影响

针对致密砂岩气藏易发生水相圈闭损害、降低气相渗透率的现象,研究了季铵盐型氟化物被岩石表面吸附对气体渗流的影响,开展了润湿性测定、表面张力测定、水相自吸、钻井液滤失与返排、气相渗透率恢复测试等实验,利用原子力显微镜表征了氟化物在岩石表面的吸附形态,结合实验计算了固体表面能与固-液界面吸附黏结力,分析了氟化物界面修饰提高气体渗流能力的机理。结果表明:氟化物能使岩石润湿性由水湿转变为气润湿,有效抑制水相毛管自吸,使驱替过程水相平均返排率由46.6 % 提高到了85.2 %,从而使气相渗透率恢复率从60 % 提高到了80 % ;氟化物吸附使固体表面微观粗糙度增加、固体表面能和固-液吸附黏结力降低,使得原固体表面与水相的接触面积减少、作用力减弱,利于水相脱离表面束缚、提高侵入水相的返排能力,进而减小了水相对气体渗透率的损害,提高气相渗流能力。     

Three-phase flow in water-wet porous media: gas/oil relative permeabilities for various spreading conditions

This paper addresses the impact of oil-on-water spreading energy (which governs the ability of the oil phase to spread on water in the presence of gas) on three-phase gas/oil relative permeabilities and residual oil saturation.Experimental tests, including simultaneous injections of oil and gas in porous media (steady state) as well as displacements of oil by gas (unsteady state) in the presence of connate water, were performed in two different rocks, Fontainebleau and Clashach sandstones.Gas and oil relative permeabilities were calculated directly from the steady-state data or evaluated by history matching of the experimental displacement production curves. The values obtained by the two methods often differ significantly; the relative permeabilities obtained by the steady-state method cannot represent a displacement.Oil recovery and relative permeabilities are higher for spreading than for non-spreading conditions for gas drainage displacements. Gas relative permeabilities at low oil saturations seem to be lower for non-spreading than for spreading conditions due to an important gas blocking effect caused by the oil/gas menisci. In this case, the measured relative permeabilities include a capillary effect.Oil relative permeabilities are compared to theoretical curves derived from an analytical model that takes into account, through the fractal dimension, the surface irregularities of a real porous medium; the model presented in this paper can be used to calculate the relative permeability of the intermediate phase (oil) during gas injection in a porous medium in the presence of water, for low oil saturations where film flow predominates; very good agreement is obtained for spreading conditions.Gas and oil relative permeabilities obtained by fitting the displacement curves for experiments performed with the reservoir rock and fluids under representative conditions may thus be used for prediction or modeling purposes on a reservoir scale.     

天然气井化学堵水新方法探讨

气井出水影响气井生产,尽管气井堵水是治理气井出水的有效方法,然而该技术的研究因其操作难度大、风险大而进展缓慢,仍处于实验室研究阶段。文中首先分析了气井堵水难度大、风险大的原因在于选择性堵水的需求,进而在吸收、借鉴国内外已有研究成果的基础上研究形成气井化学堵水新方法,认为遵从三类选择性堵水原理可有效堵水,第一类是堵剂材料本身在注入地层后具有气水选择性;第二类是堵剂进入产水气层后使岩石表面润湿性向憎水方向改变,提高气相相渗,降低水相相渗;第三类是堵剂遇水发生物理、化学反应发生膨胀、聚集、或沉淀,起到堵水作用,遇气则无封堵作用。从全气藏的角度提出了气藏整体治水方法,该研究对气井化学堵水方法研究提供了借鉴。     

Effect of surfactants on wettability of near-wellbore regions of gas reservoirs

The flow of gas in tight, low-pressure gas wells can be partially blocked by the water saturation build-up near the hydraulic fracture face if the drawdown pressure does not exceed the capillary pressure. To increase the productivity, the water saturation may be reduced by alteration of the near-wellbore wettability from water-wet conditions to intermediate-wet conditions. Many surfactants have been identified which change the wettability of carbonate and sandstone rocks from water-wet to intermediate-wet in water–air–rock systems. Among fluorosilanes, as the number of fluoro groups increases, rocks become less water-wet. One day of aging period and 1 wt.% concentration appear to be sufficient for altering wettability. Interaction with field brine plays a crucial role in selection of appropriate surfactants. The increase in gas relative permeability due to the change in wettability is a function of the pressure gradient.     

川西低渗透气藏气体钻井井壁稳定性评价方法

川西低渗透气藏采用气体钻井技术钻进时,致密砂岩井段井下垮塌频繁,为给制定防塌技术措施提供依据,在分析非达西渗流、储层敏感性对孔隙压力影响,计算气层产气时径向拖曳力的基础上,分析了径向拖曳力影响下井周的有效应力场,利用川西X3井实钻数据分析了气体钻井井壁垮塌的机理,并与摩尔库伦准则和拉伸破坏模型相结合,提出了适用于川西低渗透气藏气体钻井的井壁稳定性评价方法。川西低渗透气藏气体钻井井壁垮塌机理为:低渗透储层中高速非达西渗流和气体产出时产生的径向拖曳力使坍塌压力升高,井壁稳定性变差,同时在径向拖曳力作用下先发生拉伸破坏,随后地层压力降低进而发生剪切破坏,出现垮塌。利用低渗透气藏气体钻井井壁稳定性评价方法评价了X3井低渗透储层的井壁稳定性,评价结果与实钻情况相符,说明采用该评价方法可以评价川西低渗透气藏气体钻井时的井壁稳定性,能够为川西低渗透气藏气体钻井制定防塌技术措施提供指导。      

凝析气藏气液两相渗流的高速流动效应研究

为了研究高速流动效应对凝析气藏渗流特征的影响，在凝析气藏不稳定渗流数学模型中引入非达西效应和毛细管数效应对相对渗透率的修正模型，并进行数值求解。研究表明，在较低的凝析油饱和度时，毛细管数效应起主要作用，对凝析油产生速度剥离效应，提高气相相对渗透率，而在较高的凝析油饱和度时，非达西效应对气相相对渗透率的负作用更加明显；油相相对渗透率对非达西效应不敏感，但随毛细管数增加而增加。考虑高速流动效应的储层径向上凝析油饱和度明显低于不考虑高速流动效应的情况，随日产气量的增加，近井带的毛细管数效应逐渐增强，远离近井带，非达西效应逐渐超过毛细管数效应，使得最大反凝析液饱和度区不断沿径向向外推进。