Two-phase choking conditions of real gases flow at their critical stagnation temperatures and closely above

Homogenous flow choking conditions as pressure, temperature, speed of sound, and the consequent mass flux are derived for stagnation temperatures at the vicinity of the critical temperature and for a broad range of stagnation pressure (from 0.1 and up to 30 times the critical pressure). Results are presented and studied as relative as well as absolute deviations from the ideal gas predictions. It was found that there is a broad domain of isothermal stagnation states for which the corresponding choking states are of single-phase at saturated conditions. However, there is a narrow domain of stagnation states for which choking occurs inside the two-phase dome. For this domain, the homogenous flow choking is compared to that of the slip flow. Mass fluxes are discussed in view of the principle of corresponding states. On the basic level, a quite unified presentation is obtained by the proper normalization of the choked mass flux. The principle is refined by the observation that the remaining deviation may be organized according to the magnitude of the acentricity factor of each gas. Some practical examples are listed for demonstrating the relevance of results for Joule-Thomson cryocooling.     

Performance of extended surface from a cryocooler for subcooling liquid nitrogen by natural convection

Natural convection of subcooled liquid nitrogen under a horizontal flat plate is measured by experiment. This study is motivated mainly by our recent development of cryocooling systems for HTS power devices without any forced circulation of liquid nitrogen. Since the cold surface of a GM cryocooler is very limited, the cooling plate immersed in subcooled liquid nitrogen is thermally anchored to the cryocooler located at the top in order to serve as an extended surface. A vertical plate generating uniform heat flux is placed at a given distance under the cooling plate so that subcooled liquid may generate cellular flow by natural convection. The temperature distributions on the plates and liquid are measured during the cool-down and in steady state, from which the heat transfer coefficients are calculated and compared with the existing correlations for a horizontal surface with uniform temperature. A fair agreement is observed between two data sets, when the heat flux is small or the plate temperatures are relatively uniform in horizontal direction. Some discrepancy at higher heat flux is explained by the cellular flow pattern and the fin efficiency of the extended surface, resulting in the non-uniformity of the horizontal plate.     

Thermodynamic analysis of natural gas reciprocating compressors based on real and ideal gas models

The accurate modelling and investigating effects of various parameters of the reciprocating compressors are important subjects. In this work, based on first law of thermodynamics, conversation of mass and real and ideal gas assumptions, a theoretical analysis has been constructed to simulate natural gas reciprocating compressors. For computing the thermodynamic properties of natural gas based on real gas model, the AGA8 equation of state has been used. Numerical results validated with previous measured values and showed a good agreement. The effects of important parameters such as: angular speed, clearance and pressure ratio have been studied on the performance of the compressors. The results reveal the in-control volume temperature for ideal gas is more than real gas model but the mass flow rate and work for real gas is higher than ideal gas model. On the other hand, the indicated work that required for compression is greater for ideal gas model.     

Heat transfer in floating insulations for open cryogenic liquid containers

A transient heat transfer analysis of floating insulations in open cryogenic liquid containers is presented. The results are obtained in terms of three dimensionless parameters and are correlated to give the values of the cool down time, the total heat in-leak during cool down, the heat of sensible cooling of insulation and the steady state values of the temperature and heat flux at the exposed surface, as functions of the three parameters. The analysis facilitates the determination of the optimum insulation thickness for a given storage time. The utility of the analysis is demonstrated with a practical example of liquid nitrogen storage using expanded polystyrene beads as floating insulation.     

Gas gap thermal switches using neon or hydrogen and sorption pump

The very low pressure obtained thanks to adsorption phenomenon at low temperature can be used to build cryogenic heat switches, which offer the possibility to make or break thermal contact between two parts of a cryogenic system. The ON (conducting) and OFF (insulating) states of the switch are obtained by varying the gas pressure between two copper blocks separated by a gap of 100 μm. This pressure is controlled by acting upon the temperature of a small sorption pump (activated charcoal) connected to the gap space. For a “high” sorption pump temperature, the gas previously adsorbed in the sorption pump is released to the gap between the two blocks, allowing a good thermal conduction through the gas (ON state). On the opposite, cooling the sorption pump allows a very good vacuum between the copper blocks, which efficiently break the thermal contact (OFF state). Experimental thermal characteristics (Conductance in the ON and OFF state, ON-OFF switching temperature) of such a “Gas Gap Heat Switch” are described using hydrogen or neon as exchange gas and are compared with theoretical calculations.     

Sound-Speed Sensor for Gas Pipeline Applications

A sensor, based on a small cylindrical acoustic resonator that may be suitable for measuring the speed of sound in natural and other process gases under pipeline conditions is described. The resonator is physically robust and requires minimal calibration. The speed of sound is obtained from the resonance frequency of a single longitudinal mode of oscillation that is isolated in the frequency spectrum of the cavity and can therefore be located and measured automatically. The design and acoustic model of the sensor are discussed. The performance of a prototype device was validated by means of measurements on three pure gases: argon, nitrogen and methane. The results of these measurements agree with the predictions of the most accurate equations of state with an absolute average deviation of about 0.02% and a maximum absolute deviation of 0.06% at temperatures between 293.15 K and 333.15 K and at pressures between 0.1 MPa and 10 MPa. Additional design features have been tested that may facilitate the deployment of the sensor in a pipeline system by: (a) preventing problems with condensate when operating near or below the dew temperature and (b) ensuring that the sensor is filled with a representative sample of the pipeline gas. Finally, we discuss how the design methodology may be applied to optimize the sensor dimensions for different operating conditions, such as high or low gas pressure.     

Effect of nitrogen partial pressure on the structure, physical and mechanical properties of CrB2 and Cr-B-N films

The investigation of structure and properties of Cr-B and Cr-B-N films deposited by direct current magnetron sputtering of CrB₂ target in argon and argon-nitrogen environments, respectively is presented. The nitrogen partial pressure was kept at 10, 15, and 25% of the total pressure. The microstructure, phase and chemical composition of Cr-B-(N) films were studied by means of X-ray diffraction, transmission- and scanning-electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electron probe microanalysis and secondary neutral mass-spectrometry. The films were characterized in terms of their electrical resistivity, optical reflectivity and transmittance. Measurements of hardness and elastic modulus were performed by depth sensing nanoindentation. The results obtained show that the films deposited in pure Ar had a hexagonal AlB₂-type structure with crystallites, 15-17 nm in lateral size, elongated in the direction of film growth. The Cr-B-N films consisted of nanocrystalline nc-CrB₂ and amorphous a-BN phases. As the nitrogen content in films was raised, the volume fraction of the nc-CrB₂ phase decreased and a-BN phase increased. When nitrogen was added to the gas discharge during deposition, the nc-CrB₂ crystallite size decreased down to 3-5 nm. Without nitrogen, the films exhibited a columnar morphology. Nitrogen introduction suppressed the columnar growth of films because formation of a-BN intergranular layers. The films deposited under optimal parameters showed hardness in the range of 36-43 GPa and Young's modulus below 300 GPa. For all films, electrical resistivity values between approximately 200 and 700 µΩ cm were recorded.     

Effect of high pressure on the optical detection of gas by index-of-refraction methods

An optical method for the detection of gas in high-pressure flow streams has been developed. One can detect gas by measuring the variation in intensity of reflected, p-polarized light at a sapphire-flow stream interface over a range of angles including the Brewster and critical angles for gas. The effects of high pressure and gas identity have been determined for this gas detection method. Pressure ranges to 20,000 psi of helium, nitrogen, argon, and methane along with a gas mixture were used in these experiments. Excellent agreement is obtained in the pressure- and gas-dependent shifts in critical angle between experimental observations and predictions based on literature values of gas densities and molar refractivities. Significant gas nonidealities are discussed in terms of the correspondence principle.     

A Rational Fundamental Equation of State for Pentafluoroethane with Theoretical and Experimental Bases

A fundamental equation of state for pentafluoroethane was established on the basis of not only assessment of the experimental data but also by introducing parameters for virial coefficients having a theoretical background in statistical thermodynamics. The equation of state has a range of validity for temperatures from the triple point up to 500 K and pressures up to 70 MPa. The estimated uncertainties of the equation are 0.1% for the vapor pressure, 0.15% in density for the saturated-liquid phase, 0.5% in density for the saturated-vapor phase, 0.1% in density for the liquid phase, 0.1% in pressure for the gaseous phase, 0.5% in density for the supercritical region, 0.01% in speed of sound for the gaseous phase, 0.9% in speed of sound for the liquid phase, 0.5% in isobaric specific heat for the liquid phase, and 1.2% in isochoric specific heat for the liquid phase. The derived specific heats in the gaseous phase are close to the values from the virial equation of state with the second and third virial coefficients derived from intermolecular potential models and precise speed-of-sound measurements.     

精氩塔被污染故障的分析与防范

介绍了一起因氧产量过高引起粗氩塔轻度氮塞,停运精氩塔时未排尽精氩冷凝器液氮,使精氩塔内形成负压,而外界空气通过关闭不严的余气排放阀进入精氩塔,进而污染液氩的故障;并提出了防范措施。     

低温推进剂贮箱增压过程的传热传质数学模拟

针对火箭发动机地面试验中低温液氧贮箱的预增压和增压过程建立了气相空间的传热、传质数学模型.运用实际气体的状态方程、连续性方程、能量守恒方程以及推进剂与气相空间的传热、传质方程等组成了关于气相空间参数的微分方程组,并运用四阶Runge-Kutta算法对其进行求解.获得了气相空间的压力、温度、增压气体流量、液氧挥发速率以及贮箱壁温等参数的变化规律.结果表明,在发动机启动前的预增压过程中,气相空间的温度和压力急剧增加,液氧的挥发速率也增加很快;发动机启动后的保持增压阶段,由于气相空间的体积不断发生变化,气相空间参数的变化趋于平缓,液氧表面向气相空间的传质速率也趋于稳定.     

A Generalized Model for the Thermodynamic Properties of Mixtures

A mixture model explicit in Helmholtz energy has been developed which is capable of predicting thermodynamic properties of mixtures containing nitrogen, argon, oxygen, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, propane, n-butane, i-butane, R-32, R-125, R-134a, and R-152a within the estimated accuracy of available experimental data. The Helmholtz energy of the mixture is the sum of the ideal gas contribution, the compressibility (or real gas) contribution, and the contribution from mixing. The contribution from mixing is given by a single generalized equation which is applied to all mixtures studied in this work. The independent variables are the density, temperature, and composition. The model may be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of mixtures at various compositions including dew and bubble point properties and critical points. It incorporates accurate published equations of state for each pure fluid. The estimated accuracy of calculated properties is ±0.2% in density, ±0.1 % in the speed of sound at pressures below 10 MPa, ±0.5% in the speed of sound for pressures above 10 MPa, and ±1% in heat capacities. In the region from 250 to 350 K at pressures up to 30 MPa, calculated densities are within ±0.1 % for most gaseous phase mixtures. For binary mixtures where the critical point temperatures of the pure fluid constituents are within 100 K of each other, calculated bubble point pressures are generally accurate to within ±1 to 2%. For mixtures with critical points further apart, calculated bubble point pressures are generally accurate to within ±5 to 10%.     

基于声学法测量气体分子量的初步研究

超声流量计可以实现当地声速的直接测量,声速与气体分子量存在定量关系,而分子量大小取决于气体组分。因此,可利用超声流量计实时测量得到的声速实现对天然气组分的间接核查,这对完善天然气能源计量体系具有至关重要的作用。该文分析声学法测量气体分子量的理论基础;以超声流量计为主体搭建声学法测量气体分子量的实验装置;并以氮气为实验介质,对实验装置声速测量的不确定度进行初步分析。研究结果可为声学法测量气体分子量在天然气能量计量中的应用提供理论依据和数据支撑。     

交流磁控溅射制备ZAO薄膜工艺参数的研究

对于交流磁控溅射氧化锌铝陶瓷靶材制备ZAO薄膜,研究了氧流量、基体温度、靶电流密度、铝的掺杂量、本底真空压力和工作气体压力对ZAO薄膜电学性能的影响规律,优化了工艺参数,为工业化生产提供了实验依据.     

Performance measurements of a 7 mm-diameter hydrogen heat pipe

A gravity assisted heat pipe with 7-mm diameter has been developed and tested to cool a liquid hydrogen target for extracted beam experiments at COSY. The liquid flowing down from the condenser surface is separated from the vapor flowing up by a thin wall 3 mm diameter plastic tube located concentrically inside the heat pipe. The heat pipe was tested at different inclination angles with respect to the horizontal plane. The heat pipe showed good operating characteristics because of the low radiation heat load from the surroundings, low heat capacity due to the small mass, higher sensitivity to heat loads (to overcome the heat load before the complete vaporization of the liquid in the target cell) due to the higher vapor speed inside the heat pipe which transfers the heat load to the condenser.     

Absolute dynamic viscosity measurements of subcooled liquid oxygen from 0.15 MPa to 1.0 MPa

New absolute dynamic viscosity measurements of subcooled liquid oxygen are presented which were acquired in the pressure and temperature domains from 0.15 MPa to 1.0 MPa and from 55.20 K to 90.19 K, respectively. The measurements were acquired with an uncertainty of 1% at a 95% confidence level using a pressurized gravitational capillary (PGC) viscometer specifically designed for subcooled liquefied gases. The measurements are summarized by Arrhenius–Eyring plot parameters (μ = Ae^E/RT), and interpreted with respect to the chemical reaction rate theory of viscosity by Eyring. The Arrhenius–Eyring plot parameters reproduce the dynamic viscosity measurements with only a 2% RMS error, which is remarkable considering just two parameters are involved, A, the factor which includes the weak pressure dependence of the dynamic viscosity, and E/R, the barrier energy of the flow, where R is the universal gas constant. Although the Arrhenius–Eyring plot parameters do not have a discernible pressure dependence in the present work, the pressure coefficient versus temperature for the dynamic viscosity was determined from line plots of the dynamic viscosity versus pressure. The pressure coefficients suggest that the pressure dependence is very weak, yet positive, and increases with decreasing temperature. Measurements at pressures an order-of-magnitude higher are required to confirm this suggestion.     

一起精氩塔氮塞的处理与分析

由于投用液氩贮槽气相回精氩塔阀，导致参与精氩塔精馏的气体氮含量偏高，从而发生精氩塔氮塞。通过减量生产，并采取相应操作，系统工况恢复正常。     

一起精氩塔氮塞的处理与分析

由于投用液氩贮槽气相回精氩塔阀,导致参与精氩塔精馏的气体氮含量偏高,从而发生精氩塔氮塞。通过减量生产,并采取相应操作,系统工况恢复正常。     

Investigation of two-photon-induced polarization spectroscopy of the a-X (1,0) transition in molecular nitrogen at elevated pressures

Two-photon-induced polarization spectroscopy of molecular nitrogen in the alpha 1IIg(nu' =) <-- X 1Sigma(g)+ (nu" =) system near 283 nm was performed, and its signal dependence investigated over the pressure range from 1.2 to 5 bars at 300 K. A significant increase of the signal intensity with pressure beyond the expected square law for a two-photon process was observed for pure nitrogen. Similar behavior was also found for a constant nitrogen partial pressure with increasing partial pressures of argon buffer gas. In both cases the spectral linewidth of the excited transitions increased dramatically with overall pressure. A possible explanation is given for the observed behavior in terms of contributions to the nonlinear susceptibility of the medium from the population of one-photon resonantly absorbing excited-state nitrogen and ground state N(2)(+) ions created in the multiphoton absorption process at the high laser intensities required.