Analysis of work hardening and recrystallization during the hot working of steel using a statistically based internal variable model

A mathematical model has been developed which describes the hot deformation and recrystallization behavior of austenite using a single internal variable: dislocation density. The dislocation density is incorporated into equations describing the rate of recovery and recrystallization. In each case no distinction is made between static and dynamic events, and the model is able to simulate multideformation processes. The model is statistically based and tracks individual populations of the dislocation density during the work-hardening and softening phases. After tuning using available data the model gave an accurate prediction of the stress–strain behavior and the static recrystallization kinetics for C–Mn steels. The model correctly predicted the sensitivity of the post deformation recrystallization behavior to process variables such as strain, strain rate and temperature, even though data for this were not explicitly incorporated in the tuning data set. In particular, the post dynamic recrystallization (generally termed metadynamic recrystallization) was shown to be largely independent of strain and temperature, but a strong function of strain rate, as observed in published experimental work.     

Strain localization and superplastic-like flow in copper at high temperature

The localization of plastic deformation at high temperature and its influence on the mechanical performance of polycrystalline copper were studied. The results showed that the instability of the load during high-temperature deformation is caused by the localization of plastic flow within shear bands. This in turn leads to heterogeneity of the dislocation structure and becomes a motive for selective static recrystallization along shear bands. Under appropriate conditions the balance between the formation of new shear bands and recrystallization (or recovery) within already inactive shear bands leads on a global scale to superplastic-like behaviour of the metal.     

Diffraction Line Broadening Analysis if Broadening Is Caused by Both Dislocations and Limited Crystallite Size

The determination of dislocation distribution parameters is discussed for specimens where both strain broadening caused by dislocations and size broadening occur. If the strain broadening is well described by a model due to Wilkens, several methods are possible for the analysis of the broadening of diffraction lines. In sputter deposited nickel layers, three different methods for diffraction line broadening analysis yield identical results. The recrystallization of the nickel layers was investigated by annealing the layers at various temperatures in the range 300 K to 500 K. With increasing annealing temperature, the microstructure of the layers changed from a microstructure with small grains and high dislocation density, via a microstructure that is a mixture of small grains with high dislocation density and large grains with low dislocation density, to a microstructure with large grains and low dislocation density.     

金属材料动态再结晶模型研究现状

动态再结晶是热塑性变形过程中重要的材料软化、晶粒细化、组织控制和塑性成形能力改善方法,而材料发生动态再结晶过程形成的组织结构直接决定其综合性能,因此,长期以来动态再结晶一直是热成形过程中的研究热点。概述了动态再结晶的物理机理,介绍了位错密度模型、动力学模型和微观组织演化数值模拟,并对目前研究现状进行分析,展望其未来发展前景。     

Phase-field model during static recrystallization based on crystal-plasticity theory

A numerical model and computational procedure for static recrystallization are developed using a phase-field method coupled with crystal-plasticity theory. In this model, first, the microstructure and dislocation density during the deformation process of a polycrystalline metal are simulated using a finite element method based on strain-gradient crystal-plasticity theory. Second, the calculated data are mapped onto the regular grids used in the phase-field simulation. The stored energy is calculated from the dislocation density and is smoothed to avoid computational difficulty. Furthermore, the misorientation required for nucleation criteria is calculated at all grid points. Finally, phase-field simulation of the nucleation and growth of recrystallization is performed using the mapped data. By performing a series of numerical simulations based on the proposed numerical procedure, it has been confirmed that the recrystallization microstructure can be reproduced from the deformation microstructure.     

不同变形量5182-O铝合金汽车板PLC效应表现和吕德斯带演变

目的 系统研究变形量对5182-O合金吕德斯效应、PLC效应和吕德斯带演变的影响,为提高汽车用5182-O合金冲压零件表面质量、扩大其应用范围奠定理论基础。方法 采用透射电子显微镜(TEM)、拓扑仪和万能拉伸试验机等手段表征变形时材料的位错演变、局部变形带形成、宏观形貌演变规律等。结果 当材料变形量较小时,位错密度较低,呈现随机散布状态,随着变形量的增大,位错快速增殖且密度迅速增大,位错相互缠结,当材料变形发展至PLC效应临界区时,逐渐演变形成小范围位错塞积群,当材料变形发展至PLC效应深入发展区时,最终演变形成大范围位错塞积群和林位错墙,而与之相对应的材料表面的宏观形貌演变规律如下:由低变形量时的光滑表面演变为单条变形条带、多条变形条带和最终致密粗糙的变形条带。结论 不同变形量对材料吕德斯效应、PLC效应、局部变形条带形成影响显著。当变形量较小时,位错密度低,位错增殖速度缓慢,吕德斯效应、PLC效应弱,材料表面无明显变形条带。而当变形量较大时,位错增殖迅速,位错相互缠结,位错与第二相、晶界交互作用,形成位错塞积群和林位错墙,PLC效应剧烈,变形不均,导致表面形成变形条带。     

Wechselverformung und Gefügeänderungen von Ck 15 und Ck 45

Microstructural Changes and Cyclic Deformation The crack initiation starts due to weakening and strengthening process during rotating bending. However a smaller plastic deformation amplitude is noticed at the same nominal stress compared to tension-compression stressed specimens. This results in a higher fatigue life. The different cyclic deformation behaviour was proofed by SEM (rotating bending specimens showed a lower slip line density compared to tension-compression specimens at the same nominal stress) and TEM investigations (the rotating bending specimens showed a smaller dislocation density at the same nominal stress). Furthermore it is showed, a correlation of cyclic stress strain data σ(ε_pls) between tension-compression and rotating bending specimens exists. This is also valid for the Manson-Coffin-relationship. the relation between lg ε_pls and lg N_B depends on the material (Ck 15, Ck 45) but not on the state of stress.     

Damage mechanisms of fatigue fracture in a metastable beta Ti-15-3 alloy

The mechanism of crack tip deformation in metastable beta Ti-15-3 alloy under fatigue loading has been examined. In spite of the small thickness of the test specimens (1 mm), the plastic zone revealed plane strain conditions which was transformed to a plane stress zone when its size became 0.25 of the crack length. Slip processes whose density increased with crack length were the dominant microscopic feature of crack tip plasticity. Microcracks emanating from the main crack appeared as a result of extensive slip damage. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray evidence indicate the absence of twinning or phase transformation and that dislocation processes constitute the microstructural origin of crack propagation resistance in the alloy. Energy calculations show that the specific energy of slip, 20 MJ m⁻³, exceeds that of microcracking by three orders of magnitude.     

拉伸载荷作用下中碳钢磁记忆信号的机理

测量了中碳钢试件表面各点的磁记忆信号，并观察断口的组织，研究了外载荷对磁记忆信号的影响和金属磁记忆的微观机理．结果表明：在弹性变形阶段内，随着载荷的增加中碳钢试件表面各点磁信号值由初始无规律分布逐渐向磁有序状态转变；进入塑性变形阶段后，位错对磁畴运动的钉扎使磁有序转变过程停止，磁信号几乎不再随载荷而变化．对于在弹性和塑性加载范围内卸载的两个试件，表面磁信号均具有不同程度的时效现象，试件的断口呈现韧窝及准解理混合断裂形式．     

Deformation kinetics by crazing in glassy polymers

In order to confirm the proposed theory of the plastic deformation caused by crazing, the theoretical deformation curves derived from the dislocation analogue were calculated using the data of craze behaviour measured under static tension and compared with the experimental results of creep and constant strain-rate tension in PMMA and PVC plates wetted by kerosene as a crazing agent. Favourable agreement between the theoretical and experimental results may provide evidence that the proposed method is valuable for estimating the amount of the plastic strain caused by crazing.     

Dislocation Behaviour near the Crack Tip in Bulk Fe-3% Si Single Crystal

An investigation has been made of the disloca-tion distribution and dislocation free zone near thecrack tip in bulk Fe-3% Si single crystal duringdeformation in SEM.It has been found that anumber of dislocations were emitted from the cracktip during deformation.After that,the dislocationsmoved rapidly away from the crack tip,which indi-cated that they were strongly repelled by the stressfield at the crack tip.Between the crack tip and theplastic zone there is a region of dislocation-free,which is referred to as dislocation-free zone (DFZ).The length of DFZs is roughly estimated 100μm which is much longer than that found in thinfoil specimen.The variation of dislocation densityas a function of the distance from the crack tip wasmeasured,which showed that the dislocations areinversely piled up in the plastic zone.The length ofDFZs increased with both the length of pre-crackand the amplitude of applied stress.     

工业纯铝热轧形变过程中的再结晶研究

本文对工业纯铝在不同温度(150—550℃)及不同形变速率(13—17S~(-1)条件下进行轧制并研究其动态再结晶及静态再结晶行为。结果表明,由于形变速率很快,只产生了动态回复而未产生动态再结晶。但轧制后等温停留时则发生了静态再结晶。形变温度愈高,形变量愈大,停留时间愈长则愈有利于再结晶的进行。     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels after Dynamic and Post‐Dynamic Recrystallization Treatment

The effects of dynamic and post‐dynamic recrystallization (DRX and post‐DRX) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steels are critically reviewed. Particularly, the paper is focused on the grain refinement and strengthening by large strain deformation including severe plastic deformation conditions. The DRX and post‐DRX microstructures are considered with close relation to the operative recrystallization mechanisms. Specific emphasis is placed upon two recrystallization mechanisms, that is, discontinuous and continuous, and their dependence on the deformation/annealing conditions. The relationships between DRX microstructures and processing conditions are summarized and their effect on post‐DRX behavior is clarified. The structural strengthening mechanisms including the grain size and the dislocation density are elaborated.

     

Zur Ermittlung verformungsbedingter Makro- und Mikroeigenspannungen durch mechanische und röntgenographische Eigenspannungsanalysen

Analysis of deformation induced residual macro-and microstresses by mechanical and X-ray methods Residual stress distributions in plastically deformed tensile and bending specimens of perlitic steel were analysed using X-ray diffraction technique and incremental holedrilling method. After tensile loading compressive residual stresses are measured by X-ray analysis in the ferrite phase. Consequently X-ray analysis detects compressive microstresses. In the case of bending specimens residual macrostresses are superposed with residual microstresses after unloading. In no case identical residual stress values were measured by X-ray and hole drilling methods. Microstresses can be separated combining both measurement methods. Microstresses after tensile loading were found to be greater than in surface layers of respective bending samples subjected to the same amount of plastic strain.     

Plastic deformation of bcc metal thin foils without dislocation

Heavy plastic deformation of fcc metal thin foils to fracture has been found recently to proceed without involving dislocations, and it results in the formation of high density of vacancy clusters. Thin foil specimens of bcc metals such as V and Mo were plastically deformed to fracture in in situ elongation experiments under an electron microscope. Morphology of thinning and fracture was found to be similar to fcc metals, and no dislocation was observed during heavy deformation. Electron diffraction analysis at the tip of a crack during deformation confirmed a large elastic deformation of up to 5%. Unlike in fcc metal thin foil specimens, point defect clusters were not observed near fractured tips. This difference is attributed to the difference in vacancy reaction, though the deformation in bcc metals without dislocation most likely does produce vacancies.     

Synchrotron based reciprocal space mapping and dislocation substructure analysis

During plastic deformation of FCC materials, dislocation density does not evolve uniformly but a dislocation cell/wall structure is formed. X-ray diffraction reciprocal space mapping is used to investigate this substructure within a single grain in a large grained aluminium polycrystal. A simple dislocation cell/wall model capable of computing numerical reciprocal space maps is presented. The model qualitatively captures the experimentally observed features.     

Deformed microstructure evolution in AM60B Mg alloy under hypervelocity impact at a velocity of 5 km s

Deformed microstructure in AM60B Mg alloy under hypervelocity impact at a velocity of 5 km s⁻¹ were investigated through optical microscope, scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope. The results show that four deformed zones around the crater can be classified based on the different deformed microstructure, including ultrafine grain zone, ultrafine grain and deformation twin zone, high and low density deformation twin zones. The dislocation slipping, deformation twins and ultrafine grains are the dominant components in the four deformed zones, and the evolution of deformed microstructure is speculated based on the deformed microstructure observed in four zones. Slipping and twinning play a critical role for the formation of the dynamic recrystallized grains, and twinning-induced rotational dynamic recrystallization mechanism is thought to be the main mechanism for the formation of ultrafine grains. The microhardness and dynamic compressive strength in different deformed zones were measured, and the high microhardness and yield strength in ultrafine grain zone should be attributed to the strain hardening and grain refining.     

A Model of Dynamic Recrystallization in Alloys during High Strain Plastic Deformation

1.IntroductionVerysmallrecrystallizedgrainswereobservedintheadiabaticshearbandsinmetalswhentheywereheavilydeformedathighstrainrates,whichwerezonesofhighlylocalizedplasticdeformation[1~5].Pak[1]foundthatshearbandsinacommerciallypuretitaniumwereconsistedofsmallgrainsof5o~3Oonmindiameterwithwell-definedboundaries.Chokshi[2],And.ade[3jandHinesI4Jalsoobservedtherecrystal-lizedgrainswith1oO~2Oonmdiameterswithintheshearbandsofcopper.Cho151showedthattherewereequiaxedcellswiththesizesof2oo~5oonminth…     

Analysis of the internal structure and lattice (mis)orientation in individual grains of deformed CP nickel polycrystals by synchrotron X-ray micro-diffraction and microscopy

Monotonic and cyclic loading of polycrystals causes a complex evolution of the dislocation structure and internal stresses. These phenomena were studied in sheet samples of commercially pure (CP) Ni in heat-treated (large-grained) states. Various microscopy tools were used, namely, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) to image the surface grain structure; Focused Ion Beam (FIB) with channelling contrast to visualise the through-thickness grain arrangement; and synchrotron scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) to obtain absorption-contrast images. In order to investigate the internal defects and lattice distortion caused by them, synchrotron X-ray diffraction was used in a variety of modes. Reciprocal space mapping (RSM) was used to quantify the amount of lattice re-orientation (rotation) due to plastic deformation. Micro-beam Laue diffraction was used to obtain 2D images containing multiple reflections that undergo “streaking” due to plastic deformation. The combination of reciprocal space mapping and Laue micro-diffraction provided improved insight into the deformation processes within individual grains during plastic deformation. The results are interpreted and discussed in conjunction with dislocation dynamics and finite element modelling of plastic deformation by crystal slip.     

Defect structure of gold introduced by high-speed deformation

The effect of deformation speed on defect structures introduced into bulk gold specimens at 298 K has been investigated systematically over a wide range of strain rate from ′=10⁻² to 10⁶ s⁻¹. As strain rate increased, dislocation structure changed from heterogeneous distribution, so-called cell structure, to random distribution. Also, stacking fault tetrahedra (SFTs) were produced at anomalously high density by deformation at high strain rate. The anomalous production of SFTs observed at high strain rate is consistent with the characteristic microstructure induced by dislocation-free plastic deformation, which has been recently reported in deformation of gold thin foils. Thus, the results of the present study indicate that high-speed deformation induces an abnormal mechanism of plastic deformation, which falls beyond the scope of dislocation theory. Numerical analysis of dislocation structure and SFTs revealed that the transition point of variation of deformation mode is around the strain rate of 10³ s⁻¹.