Estimation of fracture normal stiffness using a transmissivity-depth correlation

A new method for determination of fracture normal stiffness is developed in this paper. From the point of hydro-mechanical coupling, the relationship between transmissivity and depth is utilized to calculate fracture normal stiffness of large-scale rock masses, which is an important but difficult-to-obtain parameter. The basic idea is that flow in fractured media is very sensitive to aperture of discontinuity, and the aperture of the discontinuity is mainly determined by the normal stress and normal stiffness. A decrease in transmissivity of fractured rock masses with increasing depth, as indicated in hydraulic tests, is due to closure of the joints caused by an increase in the normal stress that is nearly proportional to depth. Consequently, it is possible to estimate in-situ fracture normal stiffness by using information of depth-dependent transmissivity. An equation is derived to achieve the purpose. In our preliminary case study at the fractured sandstone on the left bank of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir in China, the variable fracture normal stiffness is estimated. It satisfies the fact that normal stiffness will increase with increasing stress, i.e. with increasing depth. The value obtained by our method is of the same order of magnitude as the normal stiffness values obtained from laboratory tests reported in the literature. Furthermore, the estimated deformation modulus of the rock mass is close enough to that obtained from in-situ tests or inverse analysis.     

Determination and applications of rock quality designation(RQD)

Characterization of rock masses and evaluation of their mechanical properties are important and challenging tasks in rock mechanics and rock engineering.Since in many cases rock quality designation(RQD)is the only rock mass classification index available,this paper outlines the key aspects on determination of RQD and evaluates the empirical methods based on RQD for determining the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses.First,various methods for determining RQD are presented and the effects of different factors on determination of RQD are highlighted.Then,the empirical methods based on RQD for determining the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses are briefly reviewed.Finally,the empirical methods based on RQD are used to determine the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses at five different sites including 13 cases,and the results are compared with those obtained by other empirical methods based on rock mass classification indices such as rock mass rating(RMR),Q-system(Q) and geological strength index(GSI).It is shown that the empirical methods based on RQD tend to give deformation modulus values close to the lower bound(conservative) and unconfined compressive strength values in the middle of the corresponding values from different empirical methods based on RMR,Q and GSI.The empirical methods based on RQD provide a convenient way for estimating the mechanical properties of rock masses but,whenever possible,they should be used together with other empirical methods based on RMR,Q and GSI.     

Measurement and analysis of rock mass discontinuity spacing and frequency in part of the Fimiston Open Pit operation in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia: a case study

The Fimiston Open Pit is located in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia and is mining an area traditionally known as the Golden Mile. The geological succession in part consists of a 3000–4000 m thick sequence of ultramafic to mafic volcanic rocks and mafic sills, including the Golden Mile Dolerite and the Paringa Basalt into which 650 m high pit slopes will ultimately be excavated. A total of 349 m of scanline were mapped (770 discontinuity measurements), 1022 m of core logged (a further 1795 discontinuity measurements) and a detailed analysis of discontinuity spacing and frequency were undertaken.The total discontinuity spacing values for the study area clearly follow the shape of the exponential distribution, which is consistent with many previous workers’ results. Although not as clearly defined, the normal set spacing values also appear to follow the exponential distribution. The total average calculation for rock quality designation (RQD*) in this study is within 5% of the total average estimate for RQD. This confirms that the method proposed by Priest and Hudson (Int J Rock Mech Min Sci & Geomech Abstr 13 (1976) 135) provides a valuable tool that would be particularly beneficial for geotechnical investigations where diamond core is not readily available.Discontinuity spacing results are complicated by the influence of quartz veining and foliation planes. The veins appear to have influenced the scanline mapping data to a greater extent than the core logging data, while the foliation appears to have influenced the core logging data to a greater degree.     

Geotechnical characteristics of Bakhtiary dam site,SW Iran: the highest double-curvature dam in the world

The Bakhtiary Hydropower Project with a 325 m high dam will be constructed on Bakhtiary River, in southwest Iran. The main dam has been designed as a double-curvature concrete structure which will be the highest one of its type in the world. Geologically, the dam site is located on siliceous limestone of the Sarvak Formation in the northwestern part of the folded Zagros. A large number of complicated geological structures in the study area, such as folding and duplex structure, faults, chevron folds, kink band zones as well as joint and fracture systems, raised concerns regarding the acceptability of the site for such a monumental dam. To create a comprehensive geotechnical model of the dam site and appurtenant structures, very extensive surface and subsurface investigations were carried out, including core drilling, water pressure testing, driving exploratory galleries for engineering geological mapping, a rock mass discontinuity survey and in situ rock mechanical tests. This research applies the results of the engineering geological and geotechnical investigations to define the geomechanical model of the dam site enabling options to be considered to achieve a safe dam design. The investigations show the rock mass of the dam site area is intersected by four main discontinuities namely, the bedding plane(s) of the rock mass and three major joint sets. Water pressure tests provide data about the permeability of the rock mass which is significantly dependant on the joint properties and the geological structures. These parameters, set the criteria for the design of the grout curtain at the dam foundation. The rock mass classification of the dam site was determined mainly based on the gallery survey and core logging using the rock mass rating, geological strength index (GSI) and Q system. Six classes of rock mass qualities were distinguished which show a fair to good rock mass at the dam foundation. From the plate load test results, a site-specific correlation was developed for estimating the modulus of deformation of the rock masses using GSI value. The estimated engineering geological and geotechnical parameters at the dam site are generally favorable and suitable for the safe design of the Bakhtiary arch dam with a height of 325 m.     

结构面三维网络模拟计算RQD及精度对比研究

 以汶川映秀镇百花大桥边坡岩体为实例,运用结构面三维网络模拟法计算RQD值,具体步骤为：在概率统计结构面各项参数获取结构面模拟参数的基础上,利用Monte-Carlo法生成岩体节理三维网络,在边坡震时主滑平面、主滑横剖面、水平面上各方向布置测线模拟钻孔,获取54个钻孔岩石质量指标RQD值,以其期望值作为最终RQD。以结构面测量统计得到的等效钻探RQD为真值,对比体积RQD法和网络模拟法的相对误差(体积RQD法为24.6%;结构面三维网络模拟法仅为3.3%),证实结构面三维网络模拟法相对误差要小得多,精度显著提高。结构面三维网络模拟法是计算RQD的好方法,具有广泛的应用前景。     

Using multivariate adaptive regression splines to develop relationship between rock quality designation and permeability

The assessment of in situ permeability of rock mass is challenging for large-scale projects such as reservoirs created by dams, where water tightness issues are of prime importance. The in situ permeability is strongly related to the frequency and distribution of discontinuities in the rock mass and quantified by rock quality designation (RQD). This paper analyzes the data of hydraulic conductivity and discontinuities sampled at different depths during the borehole investigations in the limestone and sandstone formations for the construction of hydraulic structures in Oman. Cores recovered from boreholes provide RQD data, and in situ Lugeon tests elucidate the permeability. A modern technique of multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) assisted in correlating permeability and RQD along with the depth. In situ permeability shows a declining trend with increasing RQD, and the depth of investigation is within 50 m. This type of relationship can be developed based on detailed initial investigations at the site where the hydraulic conductivity of discontinuous rocks is required to be delineated. The relationship can approximate the permeability by only measuring the RQD in later investigations on the same site, thus saving the time and cost of the site investigations. The applicability of the relationship developed in this study to another location requires a lithological similarity of the rock mass that can be verified through preliminary investigation at the site.     

Effects of confinement on rock mass modulus: A synthetic rock mass modelling (SRM) study

The main objective of this paper is to examine the influence of the applied confining stress on the rock mass modulus of moderately jointed rocks (well interlocked undisturbed rock mass with blocks formed by three or less intersecting joints). A synthetic rock mass modelling (SRM) approach is employed to determine the mechanical properties of the rock mass. In this approach, the intact body of rock is represented by the discrete element method (DEM)-Voronoi grains with the ability of simulating the initiation and propagation of microcracks within the intact part of the model. The geometry of the pre-existing joints is generated by employing discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling based on field joint data collected from the Brockville Tunnel using LiDAR scanning. The geometrical characteristics of the simulated joints at a representative sample size are first validated against the field data, and then used to measure the rock quality designation (RQD), joint spacing, areal fracture intensity (P₂₁), and block volumes. These geometrical quantities are used to quantitatively determine a representative range of the geological strength index (GSI). The results show that estimating the GSI using the RQD tends to make a closer estimate of the degree of blockiness that leads to GSI values corresponding to those obtained from direct visual observations of the rock mass conditions in the field. The use of joint spacing and block volume in order to quantify the GSI value range for the studied rock mass suggests a lower range compared to that evaluated in situ. Based on numerical modelling results and laboratory data of rock testing reported in the literature, a semi-empirical equation is proposed that relates the rock mass modulus to confinement as a function of the areal fracture intensity and joint stiffness.     

Assessment of deformation modulus of weak rock masses from pressuremeter tests and seismic surveys

The deformation modulus of intact rock can be determined through standardized laboratory tests for heavily jointed rock masses but this is very difficult, while in situ tests are time-consuming and expensive. In this study, the deformation modulus of selected heavily jointed, sheared and/or blocky, weathered, weak greywacke, andesite and claystone were assessed, based on pressuremeter tests, geo-engineering characterization and seismic surveys. Empirical equations based on GSI and RMR values are proposed to indirectly estimate the deformation modulus of the greywackes. For the andesites, the spacing of the discontinuities is greater than the length of the pressuremeter probe hence the intact rather than rock mass deformation modulus is obtained. The pressuremeter test results from the claystones could not be correlated with the field data; the relationship between the ratio of rock mass modulus to intact rock modulus and RQD appears to give a better estimation of the deformation modulus.      

Load-displacement response of drilled shaft tip in soft rocks of sedimentary origin

A database of in situ drilled shaft and plate load tests in soft rock mass is developed. Analyses of the in situ load tests suggest that (i) the development of tip contact pressures is related to the rock mass shear strength, rock mass deformation modulus, and the vertical displacement of the drilled shaft tip, (ii) embedding the drilled shaft tip contributes to the development of punching shear failure mechanism in the underlying rock mass, however, the mobilized tip contact pressures do not significantly increase as the embedment depth increases unless the rock mass shear strength and deformational properties drastically increase with embedment depth, and (iii) the drilled shaft diameter does not significantly influence the development of the contact pressures, especially in large diameter drilled shafts. A framework for the analysis of the load-displacement response of the drilled shaft tip in soft rock mass is proposed using the in situ load tests. The proposed framework accounts for the observed nonlinear load-displacement response of soft rock mass and is a function of the initial normal stiffness and the initial yield pressure of the rock mass under the drilled shaft tip. Simple equations are developed for the initial normal stiffness and the initial yield pressure of soft sedimentary rocks. Additionally, in situ and laboratory test results are used to provide recommendations for the prediction of the parameters that are required in the proposed models for the initial normal stiffness and the initial yield pressure, namely the unconfined compressive strength and deformation modulus for the rock mass.     

基于V.RQD值与Hoek-Brown准则的破碎岩体强度研究

被多组贯通结构面切割后产生的大体积破碎岩体在不同围压下仍具有一定的强度,但通过Hoek-Brown准则对其进行强度评价时,因对岩体结构划分缺乏定量描述,使得参数m与s的取值很难准确确定。在传统RQD值不足的基础上,引入不同阈值下的三维体积V.RQD值概念,建立破碎岩体质量指标V.RQD值计算机模拟方法,结合RMR评分标准和Hoek-Brown强度准则,通过探讨三维体积V.RQD值的取值范围,得到不同阈值时岩体质量参数m,s值与Hoek-Brown强度包络线以及岩体变形模量E0等之间的一些变化规律,定量化表述V.RQD值对破碎岩体强度的影响。结果表明,V.RQD值作为岩体质量指标之一,可为破碎岩体的强度估计提供新的实用途径。     

用渗透性随埋深变化趋势 反求岩体变形模量的简化模型

 取得大尺度范围岩体的宏观力学参数是地质工程领域的难题。渗透性随埋深衰减的趋势恰恰反映岩体在大尺度范围的渗流场–应力场耦合行为,为解决这个问题提供契机。根据自重应力作用下岩体的应变–渗透耦合机制,以孔隙度和裂隙宽度为中间参数,建立利用渗透性随埋深变化趋势反求岩体变形模量的简化模型,推导了岩块体积模量和结构面法向刚度的反演公式。这种简化模型是在假设岩体物质结构相对均匀、只存在单组裂隙、无构造应力的理想情况下建立的,但为获取大尺度范围岩体的宏观应力–应变参数提供一种新的参考途径。     

剪切过程中岩石裂隙的渗流与 应力–应变耦合分析

 首先，考虑不同法向应力，建立岩石裂隙剪切应力和剪切变形的关系，其中对裂隙的弹性矩阵进行修正，并用三段函数关系分别描述岩石裂隙剪应力与剪切变形的3个阶段：剪缩阶段，剪胀至峰值阶段以及残余抗剪强度阶段。然后，结合三阶段裂隙剪切变形与其开度的关系，应用复合单元法，建立剪切过程中岩石裂隙渗流与应力–应变的耦合机制，研究裂隙的剪切变形、开度、导水系数、渗流场和应力场的变化与相互关系。算例分析表明：当裂隙中“充填介质”的力学参数保持不变时，通过裂隙的流速也基本保持不变，不随剪切变形以及法向应力的变化而改变，但由于裂隙开度的变化，故通过裂隙的单宽流量也随之改变；法向应力越小，裂隙的剪胀效应越大，且岩石裂隙的剪切变形对通过裂隙的单宽流量的影响也越大。     

随机节理岩体变形与强度参数及其尺寸效应的数值模拟研究

节理岩体力学参数及其尺寸效应一直以来都是岩体研究的热点和难点,但对于基于结构面网络模型进行数值模拟的研究尚未见报道。笔者以小湾坝基卸荷岩体为例,在对现场节理进行大量统计的基础上,分析出节理特征值的分布函数,再运用蒙特卡罗方法建立了其结构面网络模型。在此基础上,利用编制的接口程序和现有的FLAC3D岩土分析软件,实现了对随机节理结构面网络模型的不连续位移数值模拟。模拟结果表明:小湾坝基卸荷岩体变形模量与岩体尺寸的关系服从负指数分布,而强度参数与岩体尺寸的关系基本服从负幂函数分布,其结果与现场斜面载荷试验及经验评估参数结果较为接近。     

Computing in-situ strength of rock masses based upon RQD and modified joint factor: Using pressure and damage sensitive constitutive relationship

In this study, a new model was presented for computing strength of rock masses based upon in-situ observations of RQD popularly known as rock quality designation. This model links up the rock mass parameters from in-situ investigations with the strength parameters of jointed rocks obtained from laboratory scale experimental observations. Using the constitutive relation, the author derived a pressure and damage sensitive plastic parameter to determine strength of rock masses for varied extents of discontinuity and pressure induced damage. The test results show that plasticity characterized by hardening and softening inclusive of damage invariably depends upon mean pressure and extent of deformations already experienced by rock masses. The present work explores the test data that reveal the dependence of in-situ strength on incremental joint parameters obtained from the joint number,joint orientation, joint roughness, gouge parameters and water pressure. Substituting the relationship between the RQD and modified joint factor with that between modulus ratio and strength ratio, the model shows successfully that using damage inclusive plastic parameter and RQD provides a relationship for estimating the strength of rock masses. One of the main objectives of this work is to illustrate that the present model is sensitive to plasticity and damage together in estimating in-situ strength of rock masses in foundations, underground excavation and tunnels.     

岩石节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性的数值模拟

 岩石节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性受节理法向条件的影响很大。在岩石节理表面形状三维数值化表达的基础上,首先建立岩石节理剪切过程中力学与渗流的计算模型;接着,应用GIS技术,模拟分析不同法向条件(固定应力、固定刚度)下节理的剪切过程,获得节理剪切过程中应力与渗流特性的变化规律。结果表明,法向应力、裂隙张开度、渗透系数均随着剪切位移的增加而逐渐增加,整个剪切过程渗透系数增加了两个量级左右;而剪应力的变化却受法向条件的影响,剪应力在出现峰值后快速下降,而后固定应力条件下剪应力很快趋于一个稳定的值,而固定刚度条件下剪应力却又缓慢上升。     

深部岩体的构造和变形与破坏问题

随着经济建设与国防建设的有断发展，地下空间开发不断走向深部，如逾千米乃至数千米的矿山（如金川镍矿和南非金矿等）、水电工程埋深逾千米的引水隧道、核废料的深层地质处置、深地下防护工程（如700m防护岩层下的北美防空司令部）等。伴随着深部岩体工程响应发生了一系列新的特征科学现象，这些特征科学现象与浅部岩体工程响应相比具有迥异的特点，而且用传统的连续介质力学理论无法圆满地进行解释，从而引起了国际上岩石力学工程领域专家学者的极大关注，成为近几年该领域研究的热点。根据深部岩体的构造特点、高地应力及含能和非协调变形的特点，围绕深部岩体工程响应发生的静、动力特征科学现象，提出了深部岩体的构造和变形与破坏需要研究的科学问题。     

A load-transfer function for the side resistance of drilled shafts in soft rock

The shear stress and shear displacement relationship for the rock socket sidewalls is required for the calculation of the drilled shaft butt settlement under the service loads. This paper first introduces a comprehensive database of in situ axial load tests on drilled shafts, anchors and plugs that are embedded in different soft rock formations. The database includes measurements of (i) the initial shear stiffness, (ii) the peak shear stress and (iii) the post-peak reduction in shear stresses for the socket sidewalls. In addition to the load test results, information on soft rock mass mechanical properties and rock socket geometry is also included. It is found that (i) the initial shear stiffness is directly related to the deformation modulus of the soft rock mass and inversely proportional to the rock socket diameter and length, (ii) the mobilized peak shear stress is related to the drained friction angle of the rock mass and normal stress on the socket sidewalls at failure. The rock mass friction angle is related to the rock type and the geological strength index, and the normal stress at failure is directly related to deformation modulus of rock mass and inversely to the product of rock socket length and diameter, and (iii) the post-peak brittleness is related to the soft rock type and the post-peak shear displacement. An empirical framework for the prediction of the load-transfer function for side resistance of sockets in soft sedimentary and fine-grained rock is developed using the load test database introduced herein. The proposed framework accounts for the socket geometrical characteristics, and the rock mass engineering properties. The pre-peak range in the load-transfer function is modeled using a hyperbolic function, and the post-peak range is modeled using a brittleness index to account for the reduction in shear stresses with post-peak displacement.     

矩形断面巷道冲击地压机理研究

基于顶板剪切梁模型研究矩形巷道冲击地压发生问题,得到矩形断面巷道发生冲击地压的临界塑性软化区深度和临界载荷,分析巷道宽度、巷道高度或煤层厚度、顶板厚度等几何因素,以及煤层与顶板刚度比、煤的模量比、煤的强度参数、侧压力系数和水平应力分布指数等煤岩力学性质因素对临界条件的影响规律。结果表明:巷道顶板岩层以剪切变形破坏为主,当临界塑性区深度与临界载荷较小时,易于发生冲击地压,其发生频度较高,强度较小,破坏性较小;反之,冲击地压不易发生,其发生频度较低,一旦发生其强度会较大,破坏性较大。临界塑性区深度与巷道宽高比、初始黏聚力的大小无关,随顶板厚度、刚度比、模量比、水平应力分布指数的增加而增大,随煤层塑性软化刚度、内摩擦角、侧压力系数的增加而减小。临界载荷随巷道宽高比、煤层塑性软化刚度、水平应力分布指数的增加而降低,随顶板厚度、刚度比、模量比、初始黏聚力、内摩擦角、侧压力系数的增加而增大。     

Using geostatistical simulation to determine optimal grout injection pressure in dam foundation based on geomechanical characteristics

In operational projects, injection pressure and cement bonding in boreholes are estimated based on the results of geotechnical excavations, the Lugeon test, and pilot injection. However, considering the limited number of pilot boreholes and several structural complexities of rock mass, estimating the structural characteristics of injection boreholes is always associated with errors and in some cases grave mistakes. The present paper focuses on a new approach to determine the exact rock mass engineering characteristics in different parts of the Khersan Dam area. Using geostatistical principles, drawing changes in views, and preparation of an interpolated block model, values such as RQD and Lugeon over different parts of the dam site were estimated by kriging. A solution for determining the amount of pressure required and the cement bonding at any point of the dam axis was also proposed. The results showed that, with the transition from surface horizons to depth, neither cement bonding nor injection pressure were normal and exhibited no specific trend. Accordingly, to achieve optimum results, the engineering characteristics of rock masses in the column of each borehole were estimated; injection design and estimation of required pressure must be done on the spots with regard to the engineering characteristics changes.

     

基于三维裂隙网络的RQD尺寸效应与空间效应的研究

 岩石质量指标(RQD)是岩土工程与地质工程中的重要概念,在岩体性质分析中起到了重要作用,但RQD存在着明显的尺寸效应与空间效应,这在以后岩体工程设计计算中并没有引起充分的重视。为研究RQD的空间效应,采用三维裂隙网络模拟方法模拟现场真实岩体,并在模型中设立大量测线获取岩体中不同位置的RQD值。结果表明,岩体中不同位置的RQD值并不相同,存在明显的空间效应。为获取可整体代表岩体好坏程度的RQD值,需在大量RQD样本的基础上进行分析。另外,为更好地体现岩体的非均质性,研究不同阈值下的RQD范围,最终确定可充分反映待分析岩体的最佳阈值,为4 m。尺寸效应是RQD参数的重要性质,通过改变测线长度的方法探讨RQD在不同尺度下的变化情况。总结、提出RQD的计算模型与公式,即：A-A模型、T-T模型、A-A-S模型、Priest-Hudson公式与Senz-Kazi公式。分别研究与对比不同模型下RQD的尺寸效应,结果表明,采用A-A-S模型可充分减少尺寸效应带来的RQD的计算误差;当阈值较大时,Priest-Hudson公式与Senz-Kazi公式存在一定的误差,基于三维裂隙网络模拟的方法进行RQD的计算将会更为准确。