仿生各向异性高分子人工瓣膜制备及性能研究（英文）

人体心脏瓣膜具有力学各向异性特征,使其能够承受长期的开合循环负荷.本文采用静电纺丝法分别制备了具有各向异性(anisotropic silk fibroin,ASF)和各向同性(isotropic silk fibroin,ISF)的丝素蛋白纤维膜,并进一步与聚乙二醇二丙烯酸酯(poly(ethylene glycol)diacrylate,PEGDA)水凝胶结合,作为人工高分子瓣膜材料(PEGDA-ASF和PEGDA-ISF).有限元分析结果表明PEGDA-ASF瓣膜在心脏舒张期的最大主应力值(2.20 MPa)低于PEGDA-ISF瓣膜(2.37 MPa).与人体瓣膜相似,收缩期时PEGDA-ASF瓣膜在瓣叶根部附近会产生一个弯折区域,而PEGDA-ISF瓣膜的弯折区却接近瓣叶的自由边缘.此外,PEGDA-ASF瓣膜在打开过程中,能够通过动态调整弯折区域获得较为平滑的表面形貌.因此,人工高分子瓣膜的各向异性特征对于实现其与人体瓣膜相似的力学和流体动力学行为起着至关重要的作用.     

Biologically Inspired Scaffolds for Heart Valve Tissue Engineering via Melt Electrowriting

Heart valves are characterized to be highly flexible yet tough, and exhibit complex deformation characteristics such as nonlinearity, anisotropy, and viscoelasticity, which are, at best, only partially recapitulated in scaffolds for heart valve tissue engineering (HVTE). These biomechanical features are dictated by the structural properties and microarchitecture of the major tissue constituents, in particular collagen fibers. In this study, the unique capabilities of melt electrowriting (MEW) are exploited to create functional scaffolds with highly controlled fibrous microarchitectures mimicking the wavy nature of the collagen fibers and their load‐dependent recruitment. Scaffolds with precisely‐defined serpentine architectures reproduce the J‐shaped strain stiffening, anisotropic and viscoelastic behavior of native heart valve leaflets, as demonstrated by quasistatic and dynamic mechanical characterization. They also support the growth of human vascular smooth muscle cells seeded both directly or encapsulated in fibrin, and promote the deposition of valvular extracellular matrix components. Finally, proof‐of‐principle MEW trileaflet valves display excellent acute hydrodynamic performance under aortic physiological conditions in a custom‐made flow loop. The convergence of MEW and a biomimetic design approach enables a new paradigm for the manufacturing of scaffolds with highly controlled microarchitectures, biocompatibility, and stringent nonlinear and anisotropic mechanical properties required for HVTE.     

A novel approach via combination of electrospinning and FDM for tri-leaflet heart valve scaffold fabrication

In this paper, a novel combination method of electrospinning and rapid prototyping (RP) fused deposition modeling (FDM) is proposed for the fabrication of a tissue engineering heart valve (TEHV) scaffold. The scaffold preparation consisted of two steps: tri-leaflet scaffold fabrication and heart valve ring fabrication. With the purpose of mimicking the anisotropic mechanical properties of the natural heart valve leaflet, electrospun thermoplastic polyurethane (ES-TPU) was introduced as the tri-leaflet scaffold material. ES-TPU scaffolds can be fabricated to have a well-aligned fiber network, which is important for applications involving mechanically anisotropic soft tissues. We developed ES-TPU scaffolds as heart valve leaflet materials under variable speed conditions and measured fiber alignment by fast Fourier transform (FFT). By using FFT to assign relative alignment values to an electrospun matrix, it is possible to systematically evaluate how different processing variables affect the structure and material properties of a scaffold. TPU was suspended at certain concentrations and electrospun from 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol onto rotating mandrels (200–3000 rpm). The scaffold morphological property and mechanical anisotropic property are discussed in the paper as a function of fiber diameter and mandrel RPM. The induction of varying degrees of anisotropy imparted distinctive material properties to the electrospun scaffolds. A dynamic optimum design of the heart valve ring graft was constructed by FDM. Fabrication of a 3D heart valve ring was constructed using pro-engineer based on optimum hemodynamic analysis and was converted to an STL file format. The model was then created from PCL which was sewed and glued with electrospun nanofibrous leaflets. This proposed method was proven as a promising fabrication process in fabricating a specially designed graft with the correct physical and mechanical properties.     

Fabrication and evaluation of polyamide 6 composites with electrospun polyimide nanofibers as skeletal framework

In this study, two types of polyimide (PI) nanofiber mats, including (1) the mats consisting of (almost) randomly overlaid PI nanofibers and (2) the mats consisting of highly aligned PI nanofibers, were prepared by the materials-processing technique of electrospinning. The nanofiber mats were subsequently used to develop composites with polyamide 6 (PA6) via the composites – fabrication method of polymer melt infiltration lamination (PMIL). Owing to superior mechanical properties (i.e., the tensile strength and modulus were 1.7 GPa and 37.0 GPa, respectively) and large specific surface area of electrospun PI nanofibers, the PI/PA6 composites with PI nanofiber mats as skeletal framework demonstrated excellent mechanical properties. In particular, the PI/PA6 composite containing 50 wt.% of aligned PI nanofibers had the tensile strength and modulus of 447 MPa and 3.0 GPa along the longitudinal direction, representing ～700% and ～500% improvements as compared to neat PA6.     

中空桔瓣型超细纤维/水性聚氨酯合成革的制备及性能

以聚酯-聚酰胺6(PET-PA6)中空桔瓣型超细纤维非织造布为基布,以水性聚氨酯(WPU)膜为聚合物涂层,经干法移膜技术得到了中空桔瓣型超细纤维/水性聚氨酯(PET-PA6/WPU)合成革,实现了超纤革的绿色化制备。通过场发射扫描电镜(FESEM)等测试手段表征了PET-PA6中空桔瓣型超细纤维非织造布的结构性能,系统研究了发泡倍率对WPU膜形态结构和性能的影响规律,分析了PET-PA6/WPU合成革的结构、透气透湿和物理力学性能。结果表明:PET-PA6中空桔瓣型超细纤维非织造布裂离后单根纤维的直径介于2.2~5.5μm之间,且其性能满足纺织品合成革用非织造基布的使用要求。当发泡倍率为100%时,所制备WPU膜为致密无孔结构,透气量和透湿率分别为14.72L/(m~2·s)和3 686.84g/(m~2·24h)。随着发泡倍率的增加,所制备WPU膜具有通透型泡孔和有孔表面,平均孔径、透气量和透湿率均依次增大。其中,当发泡倍率为250%时,WPU膜的透气量和透湿率分别达到169.43L/(m~2·s)和5 209.09g/(m~2·24h)。所制备的PET-PA6/WPU超纤革为三层复合结构,包括基布层、发泡层和面层,且其透气量为0.45L/(m~2·s),断裂强力为纵向138.40N、横向96.60N,断裂伸长率为纵向72.70%、横向101.80%,撕裂强力为纵向63.20N、横向88.20N,剥离强力为水解前15.86N、水解后15.61N,褶皱回复角为纵向149.30°、横向151.80°,均优于同类型的海岛针织合成革和真皮,同时透湿率高达1 673.8g/(m~2·24h),接近于真皮。     

A novel approach via combination of electrospinning and FDM for tri-leaflet heart valve scaffold fabrication

In this paper, a novel combination method of electrospinning and rapid prototyping (RP) fused deposition modeling (FDM) is proposed for the fabrication of a tissue engineering heart valve (TEHV) scaffold. The scaffold preparation consisted of two steps: tri-leaflet scaffold fabrication and heart valve ring fabrication. With the purpose of mimicking the anisotropic mechanical properties of the natural heart valve leaflet, electrospun thermoplastic polyurethane (ES-TPU) was introduced as the tri-leaflet scaffold material. ES-TPU scaffolds can be fabricated to have a well-aligned fiber network, which is important for applications involving mechanically anisotropic soft tissues. We developed ES-TPU scaffolds as heart valve leaflet materials under variable speed conditions and measured fiber alignment by fast Fourier transform (FFT). By using FFT to assign relative alignment values to an electrospun matrix, it is possible to systematically evaluate how different processing variables affect the structure and material properties of a scaffold. TPU was suspended at certain concentrations and electrospun from 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol onto rotating mandrels (200―3000 rpm). The scaffold morphological property and mechanical anisotropic property are discussed in the paper as a function of fiber diameter and mandrel RPM. The induction of varying degrees of anisotropy imparted distinctive material properties to the electrospun scaffolds. A dynamic optimum design of the heart valve ring graft was constructed by FDM. Fabrication of a 3D heart valve ring was constructed using pro-engineer based on optimum hemodynamic analysis and was converted to an STL file format. The model was then created from PCL which was sewed and glued with electrospun nanofibrous leaflets. This proposed method was proven as a promising fabrication process in fabricating a specially designed graft with the correct physical and mechanical properties.     

Total ellipse of the heart valve: the impact of eccentric stent distortion on the regional dynamic deformation of pericardial tissue leaflets of a transcatheter aortic valve replacement

Transcatheter aortic valve replacements (TAVRs) are a percutaneous alternative to surgical aortic valve replacements and are used to treat patients with aortic valve stenosis. This minimally invasive procedure relies on expansion of the TAVR stent to radially displace calcified aortic valve leaflets against the aortic root wall. However, these calcium deposits can impede the expansion of the device causing distortion of the valve stent and pericardial tissue leaflets. The objective of this study was to elucidate the impact of eccentric TAVR stent distortion on the dynamic deformation of the tissue leaflets of the prosthesis in vitro. Dual-camera stereophotogrammetry was used to measure the regional variation in strain in a leaflet of a TAVR deployed in nominal circular and eccentric (eccentricity index = 28%) orifices, representative of deployed TAVRs in vivo. It was observed that (i) eccentric stent distortion caused incorrect coaptation of the leaflets at peak diastole resulting in a ‘peel-back’ leaflet geometry that was not present in the circular valve and (ii) adverse bending of the leaflet, arising in the eccentric valve at peak diastole, caused significantly higher commissure strains compared with the circular valve in both normotensive and hypertensive pressure conditions (normotension: eccentric = 13.76 ± 2.04% versus circular = 11.77 ± 1.61%, p = 0.0014, hypertension: eccentric = 15.07 ± 1.13% versus circular = 13.56 ± 0.87%, p = 0.0042). This study reveals that eccentric distortion of a TAVR stent can have a considerable impact on dynamic leaflet deformation, inducing deleterious bending of the leaflet and increasing commissures strains, which might expedite leaflet structural failure compared to leaflets in a circular deployed valve.     

Preparation and properties of continuous glass fiber reinforced anionic polyamide-6 thermoplastic composites

Continuous glass fiber (GF) reinforced anionic polyamide-6 (APA6) composites were prepared via in situ ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam monomers. The effects of catalyst content, polymerization temperature and time on the viscosity average molar mass (M_v) and degree of crystallinity (X_c) were investigated in detail. The final mechanical properties of GF/APA6 composites were also studied. The results indicated that both high molecular weight and the high degree of crystallinity of resin matrix lead to the high mechanical properties of composites. Furthermore, the mechanical test results showed that the composites of plain woven fabric had tensile strength of 434 MPa and flexural strength of 407 MPa. The morphologies of tensile fracture surfaces of the composites specimens were observed through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The SEM analysis showed that many disorganized nano-fiber crystals appear in the tensile fracture surfaces, which improve the mechanical properties of the matrix resin. The mechanical properties of the composites with different post-heat treatments were further investigated. The mechanical properties of the composites are significantly reduced after quenching treatment, but hardly improved after annealing.     

聚酯-聚酰胺6中空桔瓣超细纤维/Lyocell纤维非织造复合材料的制备与性能

采用纺粘技术制备聚酯-聚酰胺6(PET-PA6)双组份中空桔瓣纤维,并与Lyocell纤维网复合,经高压水刺制备双层复合结构的PET-PA6/Lyocell非织造材料,研究了纤维复合比例及面密度对复合非织造材料性能的影响。结果表明:PET-PA6/Lyocell复合非织造材料具有明显的三维立体结构和双层复合结构,PET-PA6纤维裂离后纤维等效直径介于3.60~6.50 μm之间,Lyocell纤维的直径介于9.30~11.50 μm之间,且有部分原纤化的微原纤维。面密度一定时,PET-PA6/Lyocell非织造材料相比于PET-PA6非织造材料,亲水性能有明显的提升,当PET-PA6与Lyocell纤维含量比值为1∶1时(面密度为160 g/m2),透气率为249.47 L/(cm2·s),提升117.83%;透湿率为4 035 g/(m2·24 h),提升36.01%;柔软度为4.39 mm,提升67.56%;同时力学性能有所增加,纵横强力比由1.5降至1.2,相差幅度明显降低;但热稳定性有略微的下降。随着的面密度增加,复合非织造材料的透气透湿性能逐渐降低,柔软度降低,力学性能有所增强。Lyocell纤维的复合使非织造材料的综合性能有了明显的提升,非织造布的三维立体结构和双层复合结构与天然皮革的微观结构相似,有望在超细纤维合成革基布领域得到应用。      

Paediatric nanofibrous bioprosthetic heart valve

The search for an optimal aortic valve implant with durability, calcification resistance, excellent haemodynamic parameters and ability to withstand mechanical loading is yet to be met. Thus, there has been struggled to fabricate bio‐prosthetics heart valve using bioengineering. The consequential product must be resilient with suitable mechanical features, biocompatible and possess the capacity to grow. Defective heart valves replacement by surgery is now common, this improves the value and survival of life for a lot of patients. The recent paediatric heart valve implant is suboptimal due to their inability of somatic growth. They usually have multiple surgeries to change outgrown valves. Short‐lived valve bio‐prostheses occurring in older patients and younger ones who more usually need the replacement of its damaged heart with prosthesis led to a new invasive surgical interventions with an improved quality of life. The authors propose that nanofibre scaffold for paediatric tissue‐engineered heart valve will meet most of these conditions, most particularly those related to somatic growth, and, as the nanofibre scaffold is eroded, new valve is produced, the valve matures in the child until adulthood.Inspec keywords: paediatrics, nanofibres, nanomedicine, biomedical materials, cardiology, prosthetics, nanofabrication, haemodynamics, durability, surgery, tissue engineeringOther keywords: paediatric nanofibrous bioprosthetic heart valve, optimal aortic valve implant, durability, calcification resistance, haemodynamic parameters, mechanical loading, bioengineering, mechanical features, biocompatibility, defective heart valves replacement, somatic growth, short‐lived valve bioprostheses, invasive surgical interventions, nanofibre scaffold, paediatric tissue‐engineered heart valve     

The mechanical properties of non-crimped fabric-based composites

The mechanical properties of composites prepared from two types of non-crimped fabric (NCF), namely biaxial, ±45° and quadriaxial with a 0°, ±45°, 90°, −45° ply sequence, are examined as a function of fabric weight and compared with those of alternative composite forms. In general, the properties of NCF laminates decrease slightly as the areal weight of the fabric increases. Laminates produced from biaxial fabrics exhibit superior properties for a given volume fraction of reinforcement than do laminates produced using woven rovings or continuous fibre prepregs, while quadriaxial NCF laminates have equivalent properties to woven roving laminates at certain orientations but, unlike woven roving laminates, retain their properties when rotated through 45°. Biaxial NCFS loaded at 45° to the fibre and quadriaxial fabrics produce composites with superior properties to those predicted using finite element and laminate analysis for idealized laminates based on the same materials.     

Recycling of waste nylon 6/spandex blended fabrics by melt processing

A unique approach for reclaiming waste nylon 6/spandex blended fabrics was demonstrated by melt processing through mixing and molding. Spandex from the waste fabrics was removed by hydrolysis under controlled conditions. Morphological analysis showed that the fracture surface was homogeneous for samples of neat nylon 6 and treated fabrics, and voids were observed for samples from untreated fabrics. Thermal analysis indicated that the materials from waste fabrics exhibited both similar melting temperature (around 220 °C) and similar crystallization temperature (around 185 °C). Infrared spectroscopy showed nearly the same main absorption peaks of neat nylon 6 and samples from nylon 6/spandex fabrics. The viscosity of treated fabric samples was lower than that of untreated fabric composites at low and medium frequencies, as an effect of the spandex removal after treatment. The recycled plastics from treated fabrics exhibited good mechanical properties with a tensile strength of 46.6 MPa and a Young's modulus exceeding 2.4 GPa.     

Space–time fluid mechanics computation of heart valve models

Fluid mechanics computation of heart valves with an interface-tracking (moving-mesh) method was one of the classes of computations targeted in introducing the space–time (ST) interface tracking method with topology change (ST-TC). The ST-TC method is a new version of the Deforming-Spatial-Domain/Stabilized ST (DSD/SST) method. It can deal with an actual contact between solid surfaces in flow problems with moving interfaces, while still possessing the desirable features of interface-tracking methods, such as better resolution of the boundary layers. The DSD/SST method with effective mesh update can already handle moving-interface problems when the solid surfaces are in near contact or create near TC, if the “nearness” is sufficiently “near” for the purpose of solving the problem. That, however, is not the case in fluid mechanics of heart valves, as the solid surfaces need to be brought into an actual contact when the flow has to be completely blocked. Here we extend the ST-TC method to 3D fluid mechanics computation of heart valve models. We present computations for two models: an aortic valve with coronary arteries and a mechanical aortic valve. These computations demonstrate that the ST-TC method can bring interface-tracking accuracy to fluid mechanics of heart valves, and can do that with computational practicality.     

Muscle‐Inspired Highly Anisotropic,Strong, Ion‐Conductive Hydrogels

Biological tissues generally exhibit excellent anisotropic mechanical properties owing to their well‐developed microstructures. Inspired by the aligned structure in muscles, a highly anisotropic, strong, and conductive wood hydrogel is developed by fully utilizing the high–tensile strength of natural wood, and the flexibility and high‐water content of hydrogels. The wood hydrogel exhibits a high–tensile strength of 36 MPa along the longitudinal direction due to the strong bonding and cross‐linking between the aligned cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) in wood and the polyacrylamide (PAM) polymer. The wood hydrogel is 5 times and 500 times stronger than the bacterial cellulose hydrogels (7.2 MPa) and the unmodified PAM hydrogel (0.072 MPa), respectively, representing one of the strongest hydrogels ever reported. Due to the negatively charged aligned CNF, the wood hydrogel is also an excellent nanofluidic conduit with an ionic conductivity of up to 5 × 10^?4 S cm^–1 at low concentrations for highly selective ion transport, akin to biological muscle tissue. The work offers a promising strategy to fabricate a wide variety of strong, anisotropic, flexible, and ionically conductive wood‐based hydrogels for potential biomaterials and nanofluidic applications.     

超顺排碳纳米管/硅橡胶复合材料各向异性的电学性能和力学性能

采用直接浸润法制备了具有不同层数的超顺排碳纳米管(SACNT)薄膜与硅橡胶的复合材料,使碳纳米管薄膜能够在硅橡胶基体表面均匀分散。测量了SACNT薄膜/硅橡胶复合材料在各个方向的导电性能和力学性能,研究了影响复合材料导电性和力学性能的因素。实验结果表明:SACNT薄膜/硅橡胶复合材料的导电性和杨氏模量都随着碳纳米管薄膜厚度的增加而增加,且具有显著的各向异性。垂直于碳纳米管排列方向的电阻率平均比平行方向的大一个数量级。当碳纳米管层数为240层时,平行于碳纳米管排列方向的杨氏模量为116.9 MPa(比纯硅橡胶基体增加了142倍),而垂直方向的杨氏模量仅为1.23 MPa(比纯硅橡胶基体增加50%),两者之间相差近100倍。结果表明,可以通过选择不同的参数,获得具有特定导电性和杨氏模量的SACNT薄膜/硅橡胶复合材料,并在实际中加以应用。     

Thermal and mechanical behaviour of sisal/phenolic composites

This research proposes the development of polymeric composites reinforced with natural fibres to become stronger the damaged timber structures and proposes thermal and mechanical characterization of these composites. Fibres with larger structural applications are glass and carbon fibres but the use of natural fibres is an economical alternative and possesses many advantages such as biodegradability, low cost and is a renewable source. Woven sisal fabric was submitted to heat treatment before moulding and the influence of moisture content of fibres on the composites behaviour was observed. The paper presents mechanical characterization by tensile and flexural strength of woven sisal fabric composites, with and without thermal treatment (at 60 °C for 72 h) on the fabric, thermal characterization by TGA and the manufacturing process by compression moulding. Experimental results show to sisal/phenolic composites a tensile strength and a flexural strength value of 25.0 MPa and 11.0 MPa, respectively, independent to the use of sisal fibres with or without thermal treatment.     

Effect of hydrothermal pretreatment on the properties of moso bamboo particles reinforced polyvinyl chloride composites

Bamboo plastic composites were fabricated from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and moso bamboo particles (BP). In order to improve the interfacial interaction between BP and PVC, as well as to obtain composites with outstanding mechanical properties, the roles of hydrothermal treating temperatures (120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260 and 280 °C) on characteristics of BP and properties of the PVC/BP composites were investigated. Results showed that hydrothermal modification improved the surface property of BP and wiped off hemicelluloses and pectin. A uniform dispersion of BP in PVC matrix was observed by SEM with hydrothermal treatment. Tensile strength, tensile modulus and flexural strength of the composites achieved their maximal values of 15.79 MPa, 6702.26 MPa and 39.57 MPa, respectively, with 180 °C hydrothermal treatment. The highest values of elongation at break and flexural deformation were 3.75 ± 0.20% with 200 °C hydrothermal modification and 36.22 ± 2.70% with 140 °C hydrothermal modification, respectively. Due to more decomposition of hemicellulose, the composites expressed lower water absorption and higher thermal stability when the hydrothermal treating temperature exceed 160 °C.     

Mechanical properties of aligned multi-walled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites processed using a hot-melt prepreg method

This study examined the mechanical properties of aligned multi-walled carbon nanotube (CNT)/epoxy composites processed using a hot-melt prepreg method. Vertically aligned ultra-long CNT arrays (forest) were synthesized using chemical vapor deposition, and were converted to horizontally aligned CNT sheets by pulling them out. An aligned CNT/epoxy prepreg was fabricated using hot-melting with B-stage cured epoxy resin film. The resin content in prepreg was well controlled. The prepreg sheets showed good drapability and tackiness. Composite film specimens of 24-33 μm thickness were produced, and tensile tests were conducted to evaluate the mechanical properties. The resultant composites exhibit higher Young’s modulus and tensile strength than those of composites produced using conventional CNT/epoxy mixing methods. For example, the maximum elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of a CNT (21.4 vol.%)/epoxy composite were 50.6 GPa and 183 MPa. These values were, respectively, 19 and 2.9 times those of the epoxy resin.     

不同生物质纤维及其添加量对PBAT复合材料结构与性能的影响

目的 将生物质纤维材料芦苇、黄麻和纸浆引入聚己二酸/对苯二甲酸丁二醇酯(PBAT)中,通过高速共混机制备高性能的硬质可生物降解复合材料。方法 研究不同生物质纤维及其添加量对复合材料结构、性能、生物降解性的影响。结果 PBAT/生物质纤维复合材料的弯曲模量和强度得到明显提升。在3种复合材料中,PBAT/纸浆复合材料表现出最佳的力学性能和热稳定性,通过简单混合PBAT和质量分数为60%的纸浆,其弯曲模量、弯曲强度可分别达到(1 055±35)、(12.46±1.10)MPa。降解试验结果表明,复合材料的降解速率显著高于PBAT的降解速率,并且与生物质纤维的吸水性及尺寸有关。结论 经大尺寸生物质纤维填充PBAT得到的硬质可降解复合材料的综合性能优异,为发展绿色可降解硬质包装及包装填充物材料提供了科学思路和技术依据。     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of aligned electrospun carbon nanofibers from binary composites of polyacrylonitrile and polyamic acid

High mechanical performance carbon nanofibers are highly required for the carbon nanofiber-reinforced composites, and it is necessary to develop novel precursors for the preparation of carbon nanofibers. In this work, blends of poly(acrylonitrile-butyl acrylate mono-butyl itaconate) (co-PAN) and polyamic acid (PAA) were electrospun into aligned nanofibers and the nanofibers were converted to carbon nanofibers by thermal imidization, pre-oxidation and high-temperature carbonization. FT-IR spectroscopy was applied to monitor the chemical structures of the nanofibers before and after pre-oxidation. Tensile tests were used to characterize the mechanical properties of electrospun carbon nanofibers (ECNFs). The microstructures of ECNFs were investigated by high-resolution TEM and Raman spectroscopy. The results indicated that the ECNFs derived from blend of co-PAN/PAA with molar ratio of 6/4 and with carbonization temperature of 1400 °C possessed the highest tensile strength of 1212 MPa, which could be attributed to the ordered graphitic structures in ECNFs.