Advances in thermal energy storage development at the German Aerospace Center(DLR)

Thermal energy storage(TES)is a key technology for renewable energy utilization and the improvement of the energy efficiency of heat processes.Sectors include industrial process heat and conventional and renewable power generation.TES systems correct the mismatch between supply and demand of thermal energy.In the medium to high temperature range(100~1000℃),only limited storage technology is commercially available and a strong effort is needed to develop a range of storage technologies which are efficient and economical for the very specific requirements of the different application sectors.At the DLR's Institute of Technical Thermodynamics,the complete spectrum of high temperature storage technologies,from various types of sensible over latent heat to thermochemical heat storages are being developed.Different concepts are proposed depending on the heat transfer fluid(synthetic oil,water/steam,molten salt,air)and the required temperature range.The aim is the development of cost effective,efficient and reliable thermal storage systems.Research focuses on characterization of storage materials,enhancement of internal heat transfer,design of innovative storage concepts and modelling of storage components and systems.Demonstration of the storage technology takes place from laboratory scale to field testing(5 kW^1 MW).The paper gives an overview on DLR's current developments.     

Research and development of the hybrid ground-coupled heat pump technology in China

The hybrid ground-coupled heat pump (HGCHP) systems with supplemental heat rejecter/supplier can effectively solve heat imbalance problems in the subsurface, and consequently improve the operation performance of the geothermal systems. For example, solar energy and/or industrial waste heat may be used as stable heat sources for underground heat storage in northern China with higher heating load, and cooling towers are installed to release heat into the air in southern China, where more cooling demand is needed. This paper reviews and discusses different HGCHP systems, which have been applied in China. And based on the heat transfer model of vertical borehole heat exchangers (BHE) for HGCHP systems, physical and mathematical models of multistage series circuits are developed to illustrate the heat transfer process of the underground thermal storage. A set of parameters, such as borehole spacing, heat recharging rate fractions and thermal properties of soils, which affect the thermal performance of the ground heat exchangers are analyzed, and the optimal solutions are discussed for engineering application.     

中深层同轴换热器充填材料热性能研究

地热能作为分布广、储量大的可再生能源,在节能减排和促进碳中和方面具有重要作用。同轴换热器在开采中深层岩土体热量方面优势明显,可以进行无干扰式“取热不取水”开发。作为换热器与地层岩土体的传热媒介,充填材料对热性能的影响至关重要。采用数值模拟方法分析5种充填材料对流体温度、岩土体温度和作用范围的影响。结果表明,充填材料水的热阻是细砂-膨润土的1.5倍;采用高导热的充填材料（细砂-膨润土）后,出口流体温度升高了1.81℃,环空流体随深度增加呈非线性演化;换热器短期（4个月）和长期（20年）运行模式下井底（2 000 m）影响范围分别是深度500 m的1.5倍和7倍;细砂-膨润土作为充填材料的换热器在短期和长期运行模式下,井底影响范围可分别达到5.2 m和36.5 m。     

太阳能地层钻孔贮热体夏季贮热过程的研究

建立太阳能地层钻孔（Ｂｏｒｅｈｏｌｅ）贮热单元体夏季贮热过程的理论模型，数值模拟贮热岩体在夏节贮存热量过程中的热特性，详细分析了加热流体温度、贮热单元体的贮热速率以及岩体内温度场在整个夏季贮热过程中的变化规律，揭示了岩层导热与加热体对流热交换之间的热耦合性。     

A network-based methodology for the simulation of borehole heat storage systems

The optimization of strategies to operate borehole thermal energy storage systems can play an important role for the exploitation of this technology. Available tools utilized for the design of borehole fields don't consider these aspects in the calculation. For this reason a network-based methodology which gives a sufficient level of detail to describe different system operation strategies has been developed. In particular, the method allows to calculate how the heat is distributed among the borehole heat exchangers in the field according to the way the brine is supplied to the borehole heat storage system. This enables to test the same borehole field configuration pattern for different piping arrangement. An example of application where a simultaneous need of heating and cooling is met by extracting and injecting heat in different region of the ground storage is considered to illustrate the potential of the method.     

Cascaded latent heat storage for parabolic trough solar power plants

The current revival of solar thermal electricity generating systems (SEGS) unveils the still existing need of economic thermal energy storages (TES) for the temperature range from 250 °C to 500 °C. The TES-benchmark for parabolic trough power plants is the direct two tank storage, as it was used at the SEGS I plant near Barstow (USA). With the introduction of expensive synthetic heat transfer oil, capable to increase the operating temperature from former 300 °C up to 400 °C, the direct storage technology became uneconomical. Cascaded latent heat storages (CLHS) are one possible TES alternative, which are marked by a minimum of necessary storage material. The use of a cascade of multiple phase change materials (PCM) shall ensure the optimal utilization of the storage material.This paper reports experimental and numerical results from the investigation of cascaded latent heat storages with alkali nitrate salts like NaNO₃, KNO₃ and others more. The experiments were conducted with vertical shell and tube type heat exchanger devices under realistic operation parameters. The experimental results were used for a numerical model to simulate different CLHS configurations. Dymola/Modelica was used to conduct the simulation. The outcome of this work shows on the one hand, that the design of CLHS for this temperature range is more complex than for the temperature range up to 100 °C. And on the other hand, the low heat conductivity of available PCM is an obstacle which must be overcome to make full use of this promising storage technology.     

Transient numerical model for a coaxial borehole heat exchanger with the effect of borehole heat capacity

This paper proposed a transient numerical model for a coaxial borehole heat exchanger, which considered the impact of borehole specific heat capacity. The fluid vertical temperature distribution inside the coaxial borehole heat exchanger (BHE) had been predicted based on MATLAB and compared with other transient models. Validated by measured data from a thermal response test, the built model agreed better than other models, especially in short times, with a relative error of 3.63% in 2 hours. Then, the quantitative influences of borehole specific heat capacity and other parameters on thermal performance of borehole heat exchangers were specified.     

Current status of ground source heat pumps and underground thermal energy storage in Europe

Geothermal Heat Pumps, or Ground Coupled Heat Pumps (GCHP), are systems combining a heat pump with a ground heat exchanger (closed loop systems), or fed by ground water from a well (open loop systems). They use the earth as a heat source when operating in heating mode, with a fluid (usually water or a water–antifreeze mixture) as the medium that transfers the heat from the earth to the evaporator of the heat pump, thus utilising geothermal energy. In cooling mode, they use the earth as a heat sink. With Borehole Heat Exchangers (BHE), geothermal heat pumps can offer both heating and cooling at virtually any location, with great flexibility to meet any demands. More than 20 years of R&D focusing on BHE in Europe has resulted in a well-established concept of sustainability for this technology, as well as sound design and installation criteria. Recent developments are the Thermal Response Test, which allows in-situ-determination of ground thermal properties for design purposes, and thermally enhanced grouting materials to reduce borehole thermal resistance. For cooling purposes, but also for the storage of solar or waste heat, the concept of underground thermal energy storage (UTES) could prove successful. Systems can be either open (aquifer storage) or can use BHE (borehole storage). Whereas cold storage is already established on the market, heat storage, and, in particular, high temperature heat storage (> 50 °C) is still in the demonstration phase. Despite the fact that geothermal heat pumps have been in use for over 50 years now (the first were in the USA), market penetration of this technology is still in its infancy, with fossil fuels dominating the space heating market and air-to-air heat pumps that of space cooling. In Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, France and the USA, large numbers of geothermal heat pumps are already operational, and installation guidelines, quality control and contractor certification are now major issues of debate.     

Numerical simulation of underground seasonal cold energy storage for a 10 MW solar thermal power plant in north-western China using TRNSYS

This paper aims to explore an efficient, cost-effective, and water-saving seasonal cold energy storage technique based on borehole heat exchangers to cool the condenser water in a 10 MW solar thermal power plant. The proposed seasonal cooling mechanism is designed for the areas under typical weather conditions to utilize the low ambient temperature during the winter season and to store cold energy. The main objective of this paper is to utilize the storage unit in the peak summer months to cool the condenser water and to replace the dry cooling system. Using the simulation platform transient system simulation program (TRNSYS), the borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) system model has been developed and the dynamic capacity of the system in the charging and discharging mode of cold energy for one-year operation is studied. The typical meteorological year (TMY) data of Dunhuang, Gansu province, in north-western China, is utilized to determine the lowest ambient temperature and operation time of the system to store cold energy. The proposed seasonal cooling system is capable of enhancing the efficiency of a solar thermal power plant up to 1.54% and 2.74% in comparison with the water-cooled condenser system and air-cooled condenser system respectively. The techno-economic assessment of the proposed technique also supports its integration with the condenser unit in the solar thermal power plant. This technique has also a great potential to save the water in desert areas.     

跨季节蓄热地源热泵地下蓄热特性的理论研究

研究了跨季节蓄热地源热泵系统(GCHPSS)土壤蓄热体温度场的变化规律,编写VB程序对地下埋管土壤蓄热进行了模拟计算.结果表明:当单U型竖直埋管蓄热时,土壤日蓄热量、热作用半径和平均蓄热率在初始阶段急剧变化,然后缓慢减小并最后趋于稳定,蓄热量也趋于平衡.当管群蓄热时,蓄热系统运行1个循环周期(1a)后,土壤的温度场基本上可以恢复平衡,恢复后较蓄热开始时升高0.5～1.0℃.通过对不同地区3种典型土壤的蓄热进行比较,得出粘土是一种性能良好的长期储能介质.同时,地下埋管土壤蓄热特性的实验研究为GCHPSS系统的推广应用提供设计依据.     

Comparing electricity,heat and biogas storages’ impacts on renewable energy integration

Increasing penetration of fluctuating energy sources for electricity generation, heating, cooling and transportation increase the need for flexibility of the energy system to accommodate the fluctuations of these energy sources. Controlling production, controlling demand and utilising storage options are the three general categories of measures that may be applied for ensuring balance between production and demand, however with fluctuating energy sources, options are limited, and flexible demand has also demonstrated limited perspective. This article takes its point of departure in an all-inclusive 100% renewable energy scenario developed for the Danish city Aalborg based on wind power, bio-resources and low-temperature geothermal heat. The article investigates the system impact of different types of energy storage systems including district heating storage, biogas storage and electricity storage. The system is modelled in the energy systems analyses model energyPRO with a view to investigating how the different storages marginally affect the amount of wind power that may be integrated applying the different storage options and the associated economic costs. Results show the largest system impact but also most costly potential are in the form of electricity storages.     

Study on key parameters design and economic evaluation of the electric heating and solid sensible heat thermal storage device

电制热固体储热系统对可再生能源消纳、能源清洁化利用具有重要意义。电制热固体储热装置的关键参数设计以及经济性分析是提高经济效益的重要手段。因此,本文提出了电制热固体储热装置投资运行费用计算方法。通过对比不同供暖方式所需费用分析了电制热固体储热装置的经济性。同时研究了谷电利用系数对电制热固体储热装置经济性的影响。最后,采用案例分析验证本文所提经济性评估方法的合理性与正确性。本文的研究内容为用户对电制热固体储热装置的选择提供参考。     

Review on solar thermal energy storage technologies and their geometrical configurations

Because of the unstable and intermittent nature of solar energy availability, a thermal energy storage system is required to integrate with the collectors to store thermal energy and retrieve it whenever it is required. Thermal energy storage not only eliminates the discrepancy between energy supply and demand but also increases the performance and reliability of energy systems and plays a crucial role in energy conservation. Under this paper, different thermal energy storage methods, heat transfer enhancement techniques, storage materials, heat transfer fluids, and geometrical configurations are discussed. A comparative assessment of various thermal energy storage methods is also presented. Sensible heat storage involves storing thermal energy within the storage medium by increasing temperature without undergoing any phase transformation, whereas latent heat storage involves storing thermal energy within the material during the transition phase. Combined thermal energy storage is the novel approach to store thermal energy by combining both sensible and latent storage. Based on the literature review, it was found that most of the researchers carried out their work on sensible and latent storage systems with the different storage media and heat transfer fluids. Limited work on a combined sensible-latent heat thermal energy storage system with different storage materials and heat transfer fluids was carried out so far. Further, combined sensible and latent heat storage systems are reported to have a promising approach, as it reduces the cost and increases the energy storage with a stabilized outflow of temperature from the system. The studies discussed and presented in this paper may be helpful to carry out further research in this area.     

Thermal Energy Storage and Phase Change Materials: An Overview

The storage of thermal energy in the form of sensible and latent heat has become an important aspect of energy management with the emphasis on efficient use and conservation of the waste heat and solar energy in industry and buildings. Latent heat storage is one of the most efficient ways of storing thermal energy. Solar energy is a renewable energy source that can generate electricity, provide hot water, heat and cool a house, and provide lighting for buildings. Paraffin waxes are cheap and have moderate thermal energy storage density but low thermal conductivity and, hence, require a large surface area. Hydrated salts have a larger energy storage density and a higher thermal conductivity. In response to increasing electrical energy costs and the desire for better lad management, thermal storage technology has recently been developed. The storage of thermal energy in the form of sensible and latent heat has become an important aspect of energy management with the emphasis on the efficient use and conservation of the waste heat and solar energy in the industry and buildings. Thermal storage has been characterized as a kind of thermal battery.     

套管式中深层地埋管换热器传热建模及取热分析

为了研究无干扰换热条件下,中深层地热能的实际取热性能,文章通过数值模拟方法模拟计算了套管式中深层地埋管换热器的名义取热量。模拟结果表明,套管式中深层地埋管换热器的名义取热量随着钻孔深度、大地热流、循环水流量、当地大气年平均温度的增加而增加。套管式中深层地埋管换热器周围土层的地质条件分布也影响着中深层地埋管换热器的名义取热量,具体表现为浅层土层的导热系数越小,中深层地埋管换热器的名义取热量越大;深层土层的导热系数越大,中深层地埋管换热器的名义取热量也越大。通过调整地埋管换热器的相关参数,并选择合适的地埋管埋设地点等优化措施,可使套管式中深层地埋管换热器达到可观的名义取热量。     

Ground water level influence on thermal response test in Adana,Turkey

For optimum design of borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) and ground sources heat pump (GSHP) applications, determination of underground thermal properties is required. The design and economic feasibility (number and depth of boreholes) of these systems need thermal conductivity of geological structure, λ (W m^?1 K^?1), and thermal resistance of ground heat exchanger, R (K W^?1 m). Thermal properties measured in laboratory experiments do not coincide with data of in situ conditions. Therefore, in situ thermal response test equipment has been developed and used in Canada, England, Germany, Norway, U.K., U.S.A. and Sweden to ensure precise designing of BTES systems. This paper describes the results and evaluations of the Adana continual thermal response test measurements. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The use of ground heat storages and evacuated tube solar collectors for meeting the annual heating demand of family-sized houses

The use of storages for sensible heat is limited because parts of the input thermal energy end up as unavoidable heat losses. In order to minimize this loss, it is necessary to keep the surface area to volume ratio (S/V) as low as possible. This occurs when the volume of a body with a certain shape increases. In addition to a large volume it is important to use materials with a high volumetric thermal capacity, as long as sensible heat is being used for storage. This condition is best met by water or a combination of substances with water. In the field of interseasonal storages, for solar heat to cover the heating demands of small residential buildings, the general belief is that the relative small volume needed, results in too much heat loss and therefore individual seasonal storages seem to be of no useful solution.However, the theoretical considerations and simulations in this paper show that this is a prejudice. It is possible to supply a great deal of the thermal energy needed for small residential homes with interseasonal ground storage for solar heat. The loss of heat is acceptable if the storage is designed in the correct way.The ground heat storage should be of cuboidal shape, using the local soil as storage material, if possible. The storage containment must be heat-insulated and damp-proof. The placement of the storage could be within the heated building, adjacent to it or nearby. As such systems may be useful as retrofit for existing houses this study assumes that the storage system has no contact with the heated house. The heat is supplied by evacuated tube solar collectors and their feature to produce effective heat with high temperature (above 100 °C) is used.     

能量地下蓄存及其传热效能分析

储能技术是实现能源可再生化和高效利用的一种有效途径,提高其综合利用率和实现能源的实时补充。着重论述地下蓄能技术发展状况和面临的研究问题,并通过实验和模拟计算,对蓄能的传热作用进行了分析和探讨,指出蓄能改变地下蓄能体的能位,并表现为蓄能体温度和分布的变化,这种变化随时间而改变。建议进一步开展完善地下蓄能理论研究,推动中国地下蓄能技术的发展。     

Optimisation for interconnected energy hub system with combined ground source heat pump and borehole thermal storage

Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) give zero-carbon emission heating at a residential level. However, as the heat is discharged, the temperature of the ground drops, leading to a poorer efficiency. Borehole inter-seasonal thermal storage coupled with GSHP maintains the efficiency at a high level. To adequately utilize the high performance of combined GSHP and the borehole system to further increase system efficiency and reduce cost, such a combined heating system is incorporated into the interconnected multi-carrier system to support the heat load of a community. The borehole finite element (FE) model and an equivalent borehole transfer function are proposed and respectively applied to the optimisation to analyze the variation of GSHP performance over the entire optimisation time horizon of 24 h. The results validate the borehole transfer function, and the optimisation computation time is reduced by 17 times compared with the optimisation using the FE model.     

储能技术在冷热电三联供系统中的研究现状与应用

冷热电三联供（CCHP）系统是利用一次能源或可再生能源发电,并通过多种余热回收设备高效利用余热,建立在能源的综合梯级利用基础上的产能系统。用户负荷动态变化及可再生能源输出不稳定会导致冷热电联供系统供、需侧能量不匹配,储能技术可有效解决该问题。本文总结了CCHP系统中储能技术类型及其研究现状,阐明了CCHP系统中电能储存和热能储存技术的应用方式。指出在传统能源与可再生能源相结合、供能系统越发复杂化的能源发展态势下,系统特性、配置优化和对不同场景制定出运行策略是储能技术与CCHP集成系统未来的研究方向。