Professional development to enhance teachers' practices in using information and communication technologies (ICTs) as cognitive tools: Lessons learned from a design-based research study

Technology integration in K-12 classrooms is usually overly teacher-centered and has insufficient impact on students' learning, especially in enhancing students' higher-order cognitive skills. The purpose of this project is to facilitate science teachers' use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as cognitive tools to shift their practices from traditional teacher-centered methods to constructivist, student-centered ones. This paper describes the outcomes and lessons learned from an application of design-based research (DBR) in the implementation and refinement of a teacher professional development (PD) program that is a key component of the overall project. This DBR study involved 25 middle-school science teachers from 24 schools whose implementation of cognitive tools with their students in science classrooms and virtually through a social networking site were observed over four years. A mixed-methodology was utilized to examine the impact of the cognitive tools intervention on teachers' classroom practices and students' development of new literacy skills. Identifying reusable design principles related to technology integration was another focus of the DBR study. The results revealed teachers' positive changes in their classroom practices by gradually allowing students to take control over the use of technology, and positive impact on students' ICT skills and science learning. Design principles for future professional development programs aimed at preparing teachers to adopt a cognitive tools approach are described.     

Online moderation of synchronous e-argumentation

In this paper, we present findings on moderation of synchronous, small-group argumentation in blended, co-located learning environments. Drawing on findings from the literature on human facilitation of dialogue in face-to-face settings, we first elaborate on the potential promise of this new practice. However, little is known about what constitutes effective human facilitation in synchronous e-discussions. A multi-method exploratory approach was then adopted to provide first insights into some of the difficulties and characteristics of moderation in these settings. To this end, we focused on (1) students’ perspectives on what constitutes effective e-moderation of synchronous peer argumentation in classrooms and (2) the relations between characteristics of actual and perceived moderation effectiveness. The analyses presented in this paper reveal that the role of the e-moderator in synchronous peer discussions is a complex one and that expectations from e-moderators seem at times even contradictory. Also, comparisons with findings on moderation in other communication formats (e.g., asynchronous, face-to-face) show that insights on effective instructional practices in these formats cannot be simply transferred to synchronous communication formats. We close this paper by briefly describing a tool that provides real-time support for e-moderators of synchronous group discussions, and whose development had been sparked by these findings in a further cycle of our design research program. Several questions and hypotheses are articulated to be investigated in future research, both with these new tools and in general.     

Graph interpretation practices of science and education majors

Abstract

Studies of scientists show that graphs and graphing are central to the processes and products of science. It does not surprise us that recent reform documents propose the development of competency in using and reading graphs as an important aspect of learning science and about science. Reform documents propose that (a) public school science classrooms have students engage in hands‐on inquiry practices, in which they summarize investigative activities using graphs, and (b) education students take science courses instructed by science department faculty members. Past research has demonstrated that pre‐service secondary teachers do not, on their own, default to the graphical summarizing and interpretive practices of scientists. We examined the graphical analysis practices of pre‐service elementary teachers and science graduates on two graphing tasks and concluded that there were few differences between those two groups in their interpretations. We propose a model to understand the differences between these groups and more experienced groups of graph interpreters. We conclude that taking the lecture‐oriented science courses common to science programs does not necessarily improve education students’ competencies at summarizing data or interpreting graphs and that they need to engage in scaffolded, research‐oriented activities themselves.     

Teacher factors associated with innovative curriculum goals and pedagogical practices: differences between extensive and non‐extensive ICT‐using science teachers

Second Information Technology in Education Study (SITES) 2006 was an international study about pedagogical practices and the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in math and science classrooms. One of the findings of SITES 2006 was that – across educational systems – a proportion of the math and science teachers in the 22 countries researched in the SITES 2006 study were using ICT extensively and their pedagogy was oriented towards lifelong learning which is considered relevant for the 21st century. Starting from this finding, a secondary analysis has been conducted to explore differences between extensive and non‐extensive ICT‐using science teachers with respect to pedagogical orientation, ICT competencies and professional engagement. Based on selected questions from the SITES 2006 teacher questionnaire, indicators have been developed for these constructs. Differences between the two groups were calculated using simple t‐tests and effect sizes. The findings showed that both groups of science teachers had a pedagogical orientation that reflected traditionally important as well as lifelong learning curriculum goals and practices, but extensive ICT‐using science teachers, much more than their non‐extensive ICT‐using colleagues pursued curriculum goals and practices that are oriented towards lifelong learning. In addition, extensive ICT‐using science teachers appeared more confident about their ICT competencies and felt more professionally engaged; two factors that were also found in other studies to positively relate to a lifelong learning orientation towards teaching and learning.     

Performance evaluation of an online argumentation learning assistance agent

Recent research indicated that students’ ability to construct evidence-based explanations in classrooms through scientific inquiry is critical to successful science education. Structured argumentation support environments have been built and used in scientific discourse in the literature. To the best of our knowledge, no research work in the literature addressed the issue of automatically assessing the student’s argumentation quality, and the teaching load of the teacher that used the online argumentation support environments is not alleviated. In this work, an intelligent argumentation assessment system based on machine learning techniques for computer supported cooperative learning is proposed. Learners’ arguments on discussion board were examined by using argumentation element sequence to detect whether the learners address the expected discussion issues and to determine the argumentation skill level achieved by the learner. Learners are first assigned to heterogeneous groups based on their responses to the learning styles questionnaire given right before the beginning of learning activities on the e-learning platform. A feedback rule construction mechanism is used to issue feedback messages to the learners in case the argumentation assessment system detects that the learners go in a biased direction. The Moodle, an open source software e-learning platform, was used to establish the cooperative learning environment for this study. The experimental results exhibit that the proposed work is effective in classifying and improving student’s argumentation level and assisting the students in learning the core concepts taught at a natural science course on the elementary school level.     

On-line synchronous scientific argumentation learning: Nurturing students' argumentation ability and conceptual change in science context

The purpose of this study is to examine the difference in effectiveness between two on-line scientific learning programs – one with an argumentation component and one without an argumentation component – on students' scientific argumentation ability and conceptual change. A quasi-experimental design was used in this study. Two classes of 8th grade students (the experimental group) received the on-line scientific argumentation learning program about chemical reaction, and the other two classes of 8th grade students (the control group) received the same on-line scientific learning program about chemical reaction, but without argumentation, for two weeks. All 140 students were administered the scientific conception test, conceptual change test, and argumentation test before, one week after, and eight weeks after learning. In addition, the experimental group students' on-line argumentation process was collected. Results showed that the students of the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group, regardless of scientific conceptions, conceptual change, and argumentation. Regression results indicated that hold of scientific conceptions is the best predicator for students' conceptual change, followed by argumentation ability. The quantity and quality of scientific arguments that students generated in a series of argumentation questions improved across the four topics. In addition, students also successfully changed their conceptions from pre- to post-driving questions across four topics. This clearly demonstrates that students' argumentation ability and conceptual change were both facilitated through receiving the on-line Synchronous Argumentation science learning program.     

Explanations in Mathematics Classrooms: A Discourse Analysis

Abstract

This article focuses on student explanations as a discourse practice central to mathematics teaching and learning. I discuss classrooms as hybrid discourse spaces and focus on how talk is used to accomplish social action. In doing so, I contrast several different social and sociomathematical norms for explanation and suggest that students’ choices of discourse practices position them within the classroom. Further, I caution educators against assuming that complete and detailed explanations are always best to support student learning. I discuss how explanations that are coconstructed by several students can actually support joint engagement in mathematical work and help peers stay “on the same page” while avoiding hierarchical positioning.     

Being your own role model for improving self‐efficacy: An elementary teacher self‐actualizes through drama‐based science teaching

Abstract:

Many teachers in elementary schools lack school science self‐efficacy, largely because of their inexperience with the subject. This frequently leads them to avoid teaching science or to teach it in ways that compromise the development of aspects of students’ scientific literacy. This paper describes how one teacher was able to improve her school science self‐efficacy through facilitated action research. In response to becoming aware of a discrepancy between her school science practices and her fundamental educational beliefs, Lisa developed a drama‐based, integrated science unit that she judged successful in helping students to achieve relevant learning goals. This experience led Lisa and her students to feel much more positive about teaching and learning in school science. Rather than learning from another, however, “Lisa, the science teacher” learned— to a great extent—from “Lisa, the drama‐based educator.” This finding has implications for science‐phobic teachers and for facilitators of their action research.     

Casting shadows in the science classroom

Abstract

Research in mathematics and science education frequently directs one's attention to the limited content knowledge of elementary pre‐service teachers. It is believed, however, that research of this nature leads to a deficit approach to understanding more about the teaching and learning of these subjects. In addition to focusing on the knowers of school mathematics and science, there is a call to acknowledge the problematic nature of knowing (in) mathematics and science. In this paper, the metaphor of shadows is used in a critical exploration of what it means to know and how the cultures of classrooms have shaped these images of knowing. Through the voices of pre‐service teachers, this paper directs one's attention to objects that cast shadows on the learning and knowing of mathematics and science. Three such shadow‐casting objects discussed in this paper are textbooks, teachers, and gendered ideology. The paper seeks to critically illuminate the problematic nature of what it means to know (in) mathematics and science by examining the shadowy texture of unquestioned ideologies.     

Enhancing skill in constructing scientific explanations using a structured argumentation scaffold in scientific inquiry

Constructing scientific explanations is necessary for students to engage in scientific inquiry. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of using a structured argumentation scaffold to enhance skill in constructing scientific explanations in the process of scientific inquiry. The proposed approach is designed to scaffold the following aspects of argumentation: the argumentation process, the explanation structuring, explanation construction, and explanation evaluation. A quasi-experiment was conducted to examine the effectiveness of the structured argumentation scaffold in developing skill in constructing scientific explanations and engaging in electronic dialogues. A web-based collaborative synchronous inquiry system, ASIS (Argumentative Scientific Inquiry System), was utilized to support students as they worked in groups to carry out inquiry tasks. Two intact sixth grade classes (n = 50) participated in the study. The data show that the ASIS with the structured argumentation scaffold helped students significantly improve their skills in constructing scientific explanations, make more dialogue moves for explanation and query, and use more of all four argument components. In addition, the use of warrants, one of the components of an argument, was found to be a critical variable in predicting students' competence with regard to constructing scientific explanations. The results provide references for further research and system development with regard to facilitating students' construction of scientific argumentation and explanations.     

An examination of the impact of learning objects in secondary school

Very few studies have systematically evaluated the effect of learning objects in secondary school classrooms. The vast majority of studies have focussed on higher education. The current study examined the impact of learning objects from the perspective of 850 students and 27 teachers (50 classrooms) of science, mathematics, or social science. The results suggest that teachers typically spend 1 to 2 h finding and preparing for learning object based lesson plans that focus on the review of previous concepts. Both teachers and students are positive about the learning benefits, quality, and engagement value of learning objects, although teachers are more positive than students. Student performance increased significantly – almost 30% – when learning objects were used in conjunction with a variety of teaching strategies. It is reasonable to conclude that learning objects are a viable teaching tool in a secondary school environment.     

Orchestrating the emergence of conceptual learning: a case study in a geometry class

This paper is about orchestrating the emergence of conceptual learning in a collaborative setting. We elaborate on the idea of critical moments in group learning, events which may lead to a particular development at the epistemic level regarding the shared object. We conjecture that teachers’ identification of critical moments may help them guide students to the emergence of conceptual learning. The complexity of small group settings in classrooms prevents teachers from noticing these critical moments, though. Here we present an environment, SAGLET (System for Advancing Group Learning in Educational Technologies), based on the VMT (Virtual Math Teams) environment (Stahl 2009), which allows teachers to observe multiple groups engaging in problem-solving in geometry. SAGLET capitalizes on machine learning techniques to inform teachers about on-line critical moments by sending them alerts, so that they can then decide whether (and how) to use the alerts in guiding their students. One teacher in an elementary school used SAGLET to help multiple groups of students solve difficult problems in geometry. We observed how the teacher mediated two cohorts of multiple groups at two different times in a mathematics classroom. We show that in both cases the teacher could detect the needs of the groups (partly thanks to the alerts) and could provide adaptive guidance for all the groups.     

Collaborative activities enabled by GroupScribbles (GS): An exploratory study of learning effectiveness

This paper describes the findings of an exploratory cycle of a design-based research project and examines the learning effectiveness of collaborative activities that are supported by the GroupScribbles (GS) software technology in two Singapore primary science classrooms. The students had ten weeks of GS-based lessons in science, which were co-designed by teachers and researchers to teach the curriculum by tapping on collaborative work in small groups as well as in the whole class. The results show that the GS classes performed better than non-GS classes as measured by traditional assessments. With GS, students were found to have more opportunities to participate in class discussions, and were exposed to diversified ideas. Analysis of data collected in the classroom as well as data on students’ attitudes and perceptions indicate that GS facilitated students’ collaborative learning, and improved students’ epistemology and attitudes toward science learning.     

Improving literacy and metacognition with electronic portfolios: Teaching and learning with ePEARL

Can an electronic portfolio that is both a multimedia container for student work and a tool to support key learning processes have a positive impact on the literacy practices and self-regulated learning skills of students? This article presents the findings of a yearlong study conducted in three Canadian provinces during the 2007–2008 school year initially involving 32 teachers and 388 students. Due to varying levels of implementation our final data set included 14 teachers and 296 students. Using a non-equivalent pre-test/post-test design, we found that grade 4–6 students who were in classrooms where the teacher provided regular and appropriate use of the electronic portfolio tool ePEARL (i.e., medium–high implementation condition, n = 7 classrooms and 121 students), compared to control students (n = 7 classrooms and 175 students) who did not use ePEARL, showed significant improvements (p < .05) in their writing skills on a standardized literacy measure (i.e., the constructed response subtest of the Canadian Achievement Test-4th ed.) and certain metacognitive skills measured via student self-report. The results of this study indicate that teaching with ePEARL has positive impacts on students’ literacy and self-regulated learning skills when the tool is used regularly and integrated into classroom instruction.     

Junior secondary science teachers’ understanding and practice of alternative assessment in Hong Kong: Implications for teacher professional development

Abstract:

Traditionally, teachers in Hong Kong schools have used formal tests and examinations to generate summative assessment data for rank ordering students. However, recent education reform, supported by research on science learning, has led to a demand for profound changes in assessment practices, including the adoption of methods novel to many teachers. This paper explores the views of junior secondary science teachers regarding the implementation of alternative assessment tasks in science classes and provides insight into the type and level of support required to facilitate the recommended changes. The findings have implications for the prospects of shifting the current culture of science assessment in Hong Kong and elsewhere. The paper concludes with concrete recommendations for supporting teachers in achieving changes in their assessment practices.     

Implementation of Web‐based argumentation in facilitating elementary school students to learn environmental issues

This research develops a Web‐based argumentation system named the Web‐based Interactive Argumentation System (WIAS). WIAS can provide teachers with the scaffolding for argumentation instruction. Students can propose their statements, collect supporting evidence and share and discuss with peers online. This research adopts a quasi‐experimental design, applying WIAS to the teaching of environmental issues, including mudslides, global warming and nuclear power. Fifty‐seven elementary school fifth graders from two classes participated in this research. With each class as a unit, they were divided into the WIAS group (n = 30) and the traditional argumentation instruction (TAI) group (n = 27). Before research, all students took the pre‐test of the ‘achievement test for environmental issues (ATEI)’ and the ‘environmental literacy scale (ELS).’ Then all students received argumentation training and six classes of argumentation instruction. Students in the WIAS group performed argumentation in the WIAS, while those in the TAI group performed argumentation in a traditional classroom. After the six‐class argumentation instruction, all students took the post‐test of the ATEI and ELS. The results show that students in the WIAS group have significantly better learning effectiveness than those in the TAI group. Students in the WIAS group also exhibited significantly better improvement in their environmental literacy.     

Barriers to online critical discourse

This qualitative case study illustrates barriers to informal argumentation and reasoned debate, i.e., critical discourse, in online forums. The case is the computer conference of a 15-week, graduate-level humanities course offered entirely at a distance. Twelve students, all with families and careers, were enrolled in the course. We read all messages as they were posted and interviewed five of the students several times during the course. The students provided three insights into our interpretation that the forums contained little critical discourse: (1) The students did not orient to the conference as a forum for critical discourse, and worse, they had competing orientations; (2) they perceived critiques as personal attacks; and (3) they realized early on that critical discourse was a bothersome means to obtain their participation marks. Certain practices may ease some of these difficulties, including (1) well-structured learning activities with clearly defined roles for teachers and students, and (2) a method of assessing students’ participation that reflects the time and effort required to engage in critical discourse.     

Student sensemaking with science diagrams in a computer-based setting

This paper reports on a study of students’ conceptual sensemaking with science diagrams within a computer-based learning environment aimed at supporting collaborative learning. Through the microanalysis of students’ interactions in a project about energy and heat transfer, we demonstrate how representations become productive social and cognitive resources in the students’ conceptual sensemaking. Taking a socio-cultural approach, the study aims to contribute on two levels. First, by providing insight into the interactional processes in which students encounter a particular type of representation: science diagrams. Second, the study aims to demonstrate that an important aspect of students’ encounters with science representations concerns making sense of how to respond to institutional norms and social practices embedded within the context of schooling. The findings demonstrate how the science diagrams become productive social and individual resources for the students by slowing down the students’ conceptual sensemaking processes and by opening up a space for the interpretation and negotiation of scientific concepts, as well as of the representations themselves. The study also shows the challenges involved when students move from oral to written accounts in their inquiries.