HF Radio Wave Transmission over Sea Ice And Remote Sensing Possibilities

Ground wave propagation is analyzed for a path where sea water is covered by a uniform layer of sea ice. The source is taken to be a vertical electric dipole on or above the ice layer. The solution indicates that a trapped surface wave is significant at short ranges while, at longer ranges, the usual ground wave modes are dominant. The resulting interference pattern may produce rapid variations of the field at intermediate ranges. These characteristics, as well as the height dependence of the observed field strength, are strongly dependent on the thickness of the ice layer.     

HF Ground Wave Propagation over Mixed Land, Sea, And Sea-Ice Paths

Ground wave propagation is analyzed for a two-section path on a spherical earth. Each section can be a two-layer medium which is characterized by a surface impedance. Specific calculations for a land-to-sea path indicate that the well-known recovery effect in amplitude and phase is more extreme at higher frequencies but is reduced for elevated observer heights. Calculations for a sea-to-sea ice path indicate a brief recovery because of the excitation of the trapped surface wave over sea ice. At greater distances from the boundary, the field may be seriously degraded due to the sea ice.     

On the Condition for Transformation of a Fast Surface Wave into a Slow Surface Wave

Surface plasmons (polaritons) along the boundary between vacuum and a dissipative half-space with given complex permittivity, including the case of placing an electrically thin dielectric layer (system of layers) on the boundary, are considered. Conditions for transformation of a fast gliding Zenneck surface wave (polariton) into a slow wave (slow surface plasmon) are considered. The behavior of the group velocity and the energy velocity of motion (transfer) in such structures are analyzed. The reflection coefficient of the Zenneck wave along the sea for the ice pack of a given thickness is determined. It has been shown that rigorous solution of the Sommerfeld problem by means of numerical calculation of integrals in the near zone allows obtaining the solution of the inverse problem of the structure of the surface region on the basis of redundant experimental data on components of the electromagnetic field on the surface at different ranges from the antenna.     

Propagation of HF radio waves over sloping coastal land

The field of a TM wave at a reception point over sloping coastal land, farther than a wavelength from the sea, has been calculated for a transmitting element located infinitely far away over a flat sea. The field obtained is normalized to that of a wave approaching the water/land boundary from infinity. A transmitting element placed both at some elevation angle and on the surface of the sea has been considered. In both instances, simple formulas providing fast computation of the field have been obtained by employing the integral equation approach formulated in terms of the normalized surface impedance. It has been found that the sloping land to some extent compensates for power losses in the ground and may even enhance the power density of high-frequency waves coming from low elevation angles. The expressions obtained remain valid for flat ground in place of sea. In this instance, the permittivity and conductivity of the sea should simply be substituted by those of the ground     

垂直电偶极子在涂有介质层球形导电基底上的场

利用解析方法导出了垂直电偶极子在涂履有介质层的球形导电基底上产生的电磁场的解析表达式。所得结果表明，当介质层达到一定的厚度时，与文献[1]中的平面导电基底情况相类似，垂直电偶极子同样能够在球形介质层的表面激励起吸附表面波（Trapped surface wave)。文中对具有特殊地貌情况下和有冰层的海面上的通信有新的指导意义。     

Reflection profiling of Arctic lake ice using microwave FM-CW radar

X- and C-band FM-CW radar reflection profiles were obtained across frozen lakes in northern Alaska using a single elevated high-gain antenna. Clear returns were obtained from the air/snow, snow/ice, ice/water, and ice/ground interfaces. Surface-to-bottom signal intensity ratios are within ranges predicted by plane wave reflection theory, use of which also gives plausible permittivity values for the ice-rich bottom silts. Scattering losses are interpreted for the X-band ice-bottom signals, but evidence of increased volumetric scattering loss with increasing ice thickness may have been masked by changes in bottom dielectric contrasts. The results suggest that this type of radar is superior to conventional transient GPR systems for this application and ice grounded to almost any type of bottom sediments could be profiled from an airborne platform. Such a system could help inventory wetland water volume in northern regions     

求解目标地波散射特性的方法研究

本文把求解半空间散射问题的FDTD技术与地波传播理论相结合，研究任意复杂目标的地波散特性。入射地波设置在FDTD计算区域中的总场边界上并在散射场输出边界面上提取散射近场数据，然后利用等效及镜像原理，计算无地波衰减时的远区散射场，通过引入地波衰减因子，把该远区散射场转换为远区地波散射场，文中给出了方法验证例子以及一个较复杂目标的单站RCS计算结果。     

高频地波雷达数据检验及在台风监测中的应用

通过地波雷达探测数据获取率、可用性和结果标准差及相关性等计算,分析了地波雷达对海流、海浪、海风反演测量的总体性能和适用条件。结果表明:高频地波雷达在台风期间较好地反映了风、浪、流场的空间分布及变化特征,其探测精度可满足业务需求,验证了高频地波雷达在复杂海况条件下具有较好的探测能力;地波雷达可以在不同海况下探测获取高精度可信的海流参数信息,但海浪和海风参数的探测精度和可信度受当时海况影响,当海面浪高小于1 m时或风速小于4.7 m/s,海浪和海风的探测精度较差,可信度较低。     

A numerical model for electromagnetic scattering from sea ice

A numerical model for scattering from sea ice based on the finite difference time domain (FDTD) technique is presented. The sea ice medium is modeled as consisting of randomly located spherical brine scatterers with a specified fractional volume, and the medium is modeled both with and without a randomly rough boundary to study the relative effects of volume and surface scattering. A Monte Carlo simulation is used to obtain numerical results for incoherent υυ backscattered normalized radar cross sections (RCSs) in the frequency range from 3 to 9 GHz and for incidence angles from 10° to 50° from normal incidence. The computational intensity of the study necessitates an effective permittivity approach to modeling brine pocket effects and a nonuniform grid for small scale surface roughness. However, comparisons with analytical models show that these approximations should introduce errors no larger than approximately 3 dB. Incoherent υυ cross sections backscattered from sea ice models with a smooth surface show only a small dependence on incidence angle, while results for sea ice models with slightly rough surfaces are found to be dominated by surface scattering at incidence angles less than 30° and by scattering from brine pockets at angles greater than 30°. As the surface roughness increases, surface scattering tends to dominate at all incidence angles. Initial comparisons with measurements taken with artificially grown sea ice are made, and even the simplified sea ice model used in the FDTD simulation is found to provide reasonable agreement with measured data trends. The numerical model developed ran be useful in interpreting measurements when parameters such as surface roughness and scatterer distributions lie outside ranges where analytical models are valid     

The effect of ice pressure on marginal ice zone dynamics

To evaluate the role of compressive ice pressure in marginal ice zone dynamics, a cavitating fluid model with periodic boundaries is developed and subjected to a fixed wind field and both cyclonic and anticyclonic wind vortices. In this model, ice interaction is approximated by assuming that sea ice has no resistance to divergence or shear, but has some compressive strength which is taken to be a linear function of compactness. Time scales of ice pressure effects are examined and their relevance to ocean eddies is discussed     

Radar detection of low-altitude targets in a maritime environment

Results from a unique analytical and experimental effort to assess low-altitude, short-range, radar detection capabilities in an evaporation ducting environment are presented. Within the horizon, the duct may shift the location of the last interference null several kilometers in range, which may cause nondetection at ranges where detection is expected and detection at ranges where detection is not expected. In addition, the evaporation duct may reduce the signal strength at ranges near the last interference peak so that detection of low-altitude, small-size, targets may not be possible until the target is much closer. At ranges near and beyond the horizon, radar signal strength depends both on the surface layer and on the mixed layer. To accurately model propagation in this region, knowledge of both surface layer and upper air meteorology Is required. An empirical model to merge the surface layer with the mixed layer has been developed. Comparisons of measured to calculated detection range indicate that the assumption of a standard atmosphere minimizes the variance of the difference between the detection ranges whereas ranges calculated using the measured surface meteorological conditions and a modified surface layer model minimizes the median of the difference     

Laboratory backscatter measurements over urea ice with a snow coverat Ku band

Indoor laboratory facilities were used to measure radar backscatter at Ku band (13.9 GHz) over urea ice, which has been shown to be structurally similar to sea ice. Data were collected at angles of incidence from normal to 55°, over very thin (0 to 9 cm) ice, snow-covered ice, and ice with a hooded snow cover. The laboratory proved to be useful in creating and controlling specific physical properties of ice while keeping all other variables constant, a difficulty with measurements collected in the field. It was found that surface scattering and the dielectric constant are the dominant factors that cause variations (up to 15 dB) in the measured backscatter. The addition of a snow cover increased the surface roughness of the smooth ice, increasing the backscatter at 20° incidence angle by about 11 dB and decreasing the backscatter at normal incidence by about 6 dB. The subsequent flooding of this snow layer increased the backscatter at all angles of incidence due to the increased dielectric constant of the wet slush layer. These results indicate the importance of the snow layer in influencing the surface characteristics of the ice sheet, which in turn modifies the backscattered signal     

基于模拟红外辐射的海雾监测应用研究

由于长波红外及中波红外辐射受雾滴中水汽的影响明显,结合大气红外探测仪(Atmospheric Infrared Sounder, AIRS)的特征,利用快速辐射传输模式(Community Radiative Transfer Model, CRTM)分别模拟了两个波段的通道辐射信息。对下垫面辐射和模式上行辐射进行分析后发现：(1)为排除下垫面的干扰,将CRTM模式的底层上行辐射减去下垫面辐射,此时分离出的贴地面辐射值大小与海雾的强弱分布一致,因此可用于对海雾水平分布的监测。(2）模式上行辐射及其梯度随高度的变化反映了垂直方向上的海雾强度变化;通过对其进行分析可实现对海雾垂直结构的监测。(3）分别对中波红外和长波红外通道辐射进行模拟分析后发现,两者均可反映海雾的三维空间特性。     

Polarimetric Characteristics of sea ice in the sea of Okhotsk observed by airborne L-band SAR

The Phased-Array L-Band SAR (PALSAR) aboard the Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) is capable of globally acquiring fully polarimetric data. In order to confirm the ability of L-band polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to investigate sea ice before the ALOS launch, we conducted a field experiment using an airborne Polarimetric and Interferometric SAR (Pi-SAR) in the Sea of Okhotsk in 1999. This paper presents the analyzed results of data acquired in that experiment. The extracted polarimetric parameters of several ice types suggested that polarimetric coherences and phase differences between right-right (RR) and left-left (LL) are good candidates for discriminating ice types. The polarimetric anisotropy as well as the beta angle of the first eigenvector calculated in the polarimetric decomposition procedure are alternative parameters that are sensitive to ice type differences. Due to the low depolarization characteristics of open water, it could be discriminated from sea ice by scattering entropy in all incidence angle ranges. From the relation between ice thickness and the polarimetric parameters, we found that backscattering coefficients and vertical (VV) to horizontal (HH) backscattering ratio are highly correlated with ice thickness. Since the ratio is sensitive to ice surface dielectric constants, a simple simulation using the integral equation method surface model was conducted by using the physical parameters of typical sea ice. A two-dimensional ice thickness map was derived from an empirical relation between the VV-to-HH backscattering ratio and ice thickness.     

On the excitation of the Zenneck surface wave over the ground at 10 MHz

Using a planar earth model the infinite vertical aperture with a Zenneck wave variation is found to excite only the Zenneck wave with no radiation field. The finite vertical aperture excites a field which is similar to the Zenneck wave near the aperture but resembles the usual ground wave at large distances. Numerical results for various aperture heights are given for a frequency of 10 MHz for a homogeneous ground path.     

声表面波飞机结冰传感器灵敏度及实验研究

声表面波飞机结冰传感器有望用于飞机结冰预测,其通过Love波的激发和在导波层中的传播变化,来敏感导波层表面冰的厚度及状态变化,而导波层的厚度对声表面波结冰传感器灵敏度具有重要影响.在学者Zimmermann的理论基础上,根据声表面波结冰传感器实际结构,计算得到导波层厚度对灵敏度影响的特性.通过对SiO2导波层及ST90°石英晶体压电材料进行实例计算,得其厚度在9.6 μm处灵敏度最高,并通过实验对0.004 2 m厚的冰层进行实验,得到冰层中Love波的传播速度,与理论计算吻合.     

高频地波雷达浪高参数提取的一种新算法

从Howell深水无表面流情况下的二阶窄波束雷达截面方程出发,提出了一种变换积分对象、不等分积分区间构成稀疏矩阵方程来反演无向浪高谱的新算法.在不同信噪比和不同海况条件下进行数值仿真,当信噪比高于35dB时,该算法有较高的反演精度.并将该方法应用于"高频地波雷达现场对比验证试验",反演结果与观测船输出结果比较,有效浪高的平均绝对误差为0.32m,并与Barrick法和Howell法进行了比较.模拟结果和实测结果都表明该反演算法的正确性和可行性.     

A GPS-Reflections Receiver That Computes Doppler/Delay Maps in Real Time

This paper describes a new instrument that was specially designed and developed to gather Global Positioning System (GPS) signals after they have been reflected from suitable surfaces (sea, ice, and ground), for Earth remote sensing. The device has been called the GPS open-loop differential real-time receiver (GOLD-RTR). Its main and most innovative feature is its computation and storage, in real time, of complex-valued (I and Q) cross correlations (waveforms) between GPS L1-C/A signals - received directly and after reflection - and the corresponding models of these signals. Particularly, the GOLD-RTR schedules consecutive coherent integration time slots of 1 ms over which ten parallel correlation channels, with 64 lags each, work simultaneously and continuously with the input raw data sampled at 40 MHz. The total throughput is 10 000 waveforms per second, each waveform being 64 lags long. These real-time correlation resources can be flexibly distributed in several configurations according to the observational requirements, for instance: Doppler/delay maps or up to ten simultaneous reflected waveforms for ten different GPS satellites are examples of what can be done. The further processing of the real-time computed 1-ms waveforms in a flight campaign over the ocean, ice, or ground can be used to obtain geophysical parameters such as sea level and tides, sea surface mean-square slopes, ice roughness and thickness, soil moisture and biomass, or future applications. This paper covers the GOLD-RTR architecture and hardware, signal processing and data storage issues, machine-user interface, laboratory readiness tests, and waveform data samples from the first two jet aircraft campaigns at 9300 m over the sea