Study of MANET routing protocols by GloMoSim simulator

This paper compares ad hoc on‐demand distance vector (AODV), dynamic source routing (DSR) and wireless routing protocol (WRP) for MANETs to distance vector protocol to better understand the major characteristics of the three routing protocols, using a parallel discrete event‐driven simulator, GloMoSim. MANET (mobile ad hoc network) is a multi‐hop wireless network without a fixed infrastructure. Following are some of our key findings: (1) AODV is most sensitive to changes in traffic load in the messaging overhead for routing. The number of control packets generated by AODV became 36 times larger when the traffic load was increased. For distance vector, WRP and DSR, their increase was approximately 1.3 times, 1.1 times and 7.6 times, respectively. (2) Two advantages common in the three MANET routing protocols compared to classical distance vector protocol were identified to be scalability for node mobility in end‐to‐end delay and scalability for node density in messaging overhead. (3) WRP resulted in the shortest delay and highest packet delivery rate, implying that WRP will be the best for real‐time applications in the four protocols compared. WRP demonstrated the best traffic scalability; control overhead will not increase much when traffic load increases. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Performance Evaluation of Improved Directional Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET’s) popularly uses ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. Past research has identified certain limitations on performance on AODV. This work discusses the results of a new protocol, improved directional AODV (ID-AODV) routing protocol; that has succeeded in improving the performance of MANET’s for energy, delay, packet delivery ratio and overheads as compared with networks using AODV. In ID-AODV, improvements are carried out in both network layer, and data link layer. The directionality is introduced based on hop count of its position from the source. The dual sensing directional media access control protocol is used to eliminate the hidden terminal, exposed terminal, and deafness issue. Participation of nodes in forming route is decided by checking remaining energy level of the node and also checking its load. A modified algorithm is used to reduce the delay. This algorithm reduces the delay by changing the time to live, wait time, and using expanded ring search technique. The simulation results show that the ID-AODV offers improved performance on average Energy consumption in the range of 17–20%, average end to end delay is lower by 61 to 95%, Overheads improved in the range of 10–13%, Jitter 6–21%, link break 43–52%, packet delivery ratio is 6–21% lower as compared to MANETS deploying AODV.     

一种基于路径信息的WSN路由协议

AODV是一种广泛应用于MANET的按需路由协议,但是它并不完全适用于WSN。本文通过改进AODV协议基于洪泛的路由机制,提出了一种适用于WSN的低开销、低时延的路由协议IAODV。仿真结果表明:与AODV协议相比,IAODV协议可以在保持较高的分组投递率的同时有效降低数据分组的平均端到端时延和路由开销,达到了低开销、低时延的设计目标。     

Security upgrade against RREQ flooding attack by using balance index on vehicular ad hoc network

VANET is an ad hoc network that formed between vehicles. Security in VANET plays vital role. AODV routing protocol is a reactive or on-demand routing protocol which means if there is data to be send then the path will create. AODV is the most commonly used topology based routing protocol for VANET. Using of broadcast packets in the AODV route discovery phase caused it is extremely vulnerable against DOS and DDOS flooding attacks. Flooding attack is type of a denial of service attack that causes loss of network bandwidth and imposes high overhead to the network. The method proposed in this paper called Balanced AODV (B-AODV) because it expects all network node behave normally. If network nodes are out of the normal behavior (too much route request) then they identified as malicious node. B-AODV is designed with following feature: (1) The use of adaptive threshold according to network conditions and nodes behavior (balance index) (2) Not using additional routing packets to detect malicious nodes (3) Perform detection and prevention operations independently on each node (4) Perform detection and prevention operations in real time (5) No need for promiscuous mode. This method for detection and prevention flooding attack uses average and standard deviation. In this method each node is employing balance index for acceptation or rejection RREQ packets. The results of the simulation in NS2 indicates B-AODV is resilience against flooding attack and prevent loss of network bandwidth. Comparing between AODV with B-AODV in normal state (non-attacker) shows B-AODV is exactly match with AODV in network performance, this means that the B-AODV algorithm does not impose any overhead and false positive to AODV.     

Refined trust energy-ad hoc on demand distance vector (ReTE-AODV) routing algorithm for secured routing in MANET

The characteristics of MANET such as decentralization, dynamic topology and openness are susceptible for security threats. To overcome the security threats and to provide a reliable network to transmit packets, a need for trust based routing arises. Moreover, the trust along with energy requirement on ad hoc on demand distance vector have paved way for the development of the newly proposed algorithm named as refined trust and energy based ad hoc on demand distance vector algorithm which is the refined form of the existing trust and energy based ad hoc on demand distance vector algorithms and the classical AODV. In this paper, the refinement parameter is the trust. Moreover, Bayesian probability is introduced in this paper for trust management due to its ability to handle uncertainty for obtaining the refined form of Trust calculation. The proposed algorithm routes the packets from the source to destination not through the shortest route but by selecting a reliable route which consumes low energy and trustful for sending the packets. The simulation results obtained from this work show that the proposed algorithm performs better than the existing algorithms in terms of Trust based routing and energy efficiency.     

一种基于负载均衡的移动Ad Hoc网络AODV协议改进

当移动Ad Hoc网络负载增加时,现有的路由协议的性能急剧下降,且中间节点能耗过快。为适应高负载网络,平衡网络中节点能耗,在AODV协议基础上进行改进,提出了一种基于路径选择和拒绝应答算法的PS-AODV协议。仿真结果表明,PS-AODV协议可以提高分组传送率,降低平均端     

Trust Based Detection and Elimination of Packet Drop Attack in the Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

The mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is communication network of a mobile node without any prior infrastructure of communication. The network does not have any static support; it dynamically creates the network as per requirement by using available mobile nodes. This network has a challenging security problem. The security issue mainly contains a denial of service attacks like packet drop attack, black-hole attack, gray-hole attack, etc. The mobile ad-hoc network is an open environment so the working is based on mutual trust between mobile nodes. The MANETs are vulnerable to packet drop attack in which packets travel through the different node. The network while communicating, the node drops the packet, but it is not attracting the neighboring nodes to drop the packets. This proposed algorithm works with existing routing protocol. The concept of trusted list is used for secure communication path. The trusted list along with trust values show how many times node was participated in the communication. It differentiates between altruism and selfishness in MANET with the help of energy level of mobile components. The trust and energy models are used for security and for the differentiation between altruism and selfishness respectively.     

一种基于蚁群的新型按能需求路由算法研究

提出了一种基于蚁群的新型按能需求路由算法(ARADE),针对移动网络节点剩余能量分布不均而导致网络生命周期短和蚁群算法收敛速度慢这两种缺陷做了相应的改进.存有路由信息的反向信息素表的引入简化了路由请求数据包的数据结构,将节点剩余能量、路径消耗能量以及跳数通过相应的影响因子归一化成一个参数作为路由性能评价值,以此来达到均衡整个网络节点剩余能量的目的.此外,迭代过程中信息素的最大值Гhigh可以当作参数进行一次自我迭代,使得当前节点维护在反向信息素表中的信息素值得到正反馈变化,从而加快整个算法的收敛速度.整个实验仿真是在NS-2平台上进行,随着数据包的传输速率的增加,它的生命周期、平均能量消耗和端到端延迟都会优于AODV.     

车载自组织网中基于蚁群算法的延迟感知路由协议

针对城市道路环境下车载自组织网( VANETs)中通信性能下降以及数据传输失败的问题,提出了一种基于蚁群算法的延迟感知路由( ACDR)协议。首先,建立双向车道的数学延迟模型;然后,根据提出的端点十字路口( EI)的概念,ACDR利用蚁群优化( ACO)寻找最佳路线,其中前向蚂蚁根据本地路段延迟以及当前十字路口与目的节点的端点十字路口之间的全局时延来选择路径,后向蚂蚁则负责在返回路径时更新信息素,同时,相邻十字路口之间利用贪婪转发算法进行数据包的传递。最后仿真比较了ACDR协议与连通性感知路由( CAR)协议的性能,结果表明提出的ACDR协议的数据包的传输延迟小,丢包率低,通信性能好。     

基于网关信息素更新的MANET接入Internet开销控制方法

 寻找可用网关是MANET接入Internet过程中产生开销最大的一个环节。为了有效控制接入过程中的路由开销,根据蚂蚁寻径与移动节点寻找网关的相似性,提出了一种基于网关信息素更新的接入网络开销控制算法。该算法模仿蚁群算法中信息素更新方式,运用路由应答报文中携带的信息对网关信息素进行更新。节点在寻路时根据路径上的信息素浓度、链路带宽和时延等参数计算转发概率并进行转发。通过运用NS2.29对该算法进行仿真,结果表明该算法虽然平均端到端时延略有增加,但是有效地减少了归一化路由开销,并提高了分组投递率,验证了算法的有效性。     

Analytical Termination of Malicious Nodes (ATOM): An Intrusion Detection System for Detecting Black Hole attack in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

The decentralized administration and the lack of an appropriate infrastructure causes the MANET prone to attacks. The attackers play on the vulnerable characteristics of the MANET and its underlying routing protocols such as AODV, DSR etc. to bring about a disruption in the data forwarding operation. Hence, the routing protocols need mechanisms to confront and tackle the attacks by the intruders. This research introduces the novel host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) known as analytical termination of malicious nodes (ATOM) that systematically detects one of the most significant black hole attacks that affects the performance of AODV routing protocol. ATOM IDS performs detection by computing the RREP count (Route Reply) and the packet drop value for each individual node. This system has been simulated over the AODV routing protocol merged with the black hole nodes and the resultant simulation scenario in NS2 has been generated. The trace obtained shows a colossal increase in the packet delivery ratio (PDR) and throughput. The results prove the efficacy of the proposed system.

     

无线传感器网络路由协议的设计与实现

针对传统路由协议端到端时延长、丢包率过高的现实问题,提出了一种基于贪婪转发的能量感知多路径路由协议(Greedy Forward Energy-aware Multipath Routing Protocol,GFEMRP)。GFEMRP从传感器起始结点出发,如果遇到网络黑洞则选择周边转发方式,否则将选择吞吐量大、且更接近于目的结点的结点作为下一跳结点。利用了OMNET++5.0和INET框架对包括无线自组网按需平面距离向量路由协议(Ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol,AODV),动态按需无线自组织网络(Dynamic MANET On-demand,DYMO),贪婪周边无状态路由无线网络(Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Networks,GPSR)和GFEMRP协议在内的四种路由协议进行了仿真和比较,实验结果表明GFEMRP协议具有良好的端到端时延、丢包率等性能。     

Game theoretic approach in routing protocol for wireless ad hoc networks

This paper introduces a game theoretic method, called forwarding dilemma game (FDG), which controls routing overhead in dense multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks. The players of the game are the wireless nodes with set of strategies {Forward, Not forward}. The game is played whenever an arbitrary node in the network receives a flooding packet. In FDG, every player needs to know the number of players of the game. That is why a neighbor discovery protocol (NDP) is introduced. In order for NDP to function, a field is attached to the flooding packets (routing overhead packets). The mixed strategy Nash equilibrium is used as a solution for the FDG. This provides the probability that the flooding packet would be forwarded by the receiver node. FDG with NDP is implemented in AODV protocol in Network Simulator NS-2 to verify its performance with simulations. FDG with NDP improves performance of the AODV compared to the same network with only AODV protocol in moderate and high node densities. FDG can be applied to any routing protocol that uses flooding in the route discovery phase.     

Modeling and Statistical Analysis of Scenario Metric Parameters of Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol

The goal of our work is to establish chosen scenario metric parameters for ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol by both simulation and statistical analysis. In first part of our work, we have carried out simulation of AODV on NS2 under different topological conditions. AODV’s performance for end to end delay, energy consumption and packet delivery rate as a function of area, packet rate and packet size is recorded. Based on evaluation of statistical data & graphs, range of scenario metric parameters at which AODV performs best is chosen. Also, Random topology with mobility is considered as chosen topology for AODV after evaluating performance. Performance of MANET is highly influenced by parametric settings for speed, area, packet rate, packet size. Based on our analysis of goodness of fit, residual and prediction bounds we conclude that the regression analysis equation for performance parameters is acceptable predictive empirical model for the range of values obtained from the experimental data. The simulation results show that our empirical model is capable of producing good estimates as statistical parameters values are well within limits. Therefore, we may infer that for the experimental set up under consideration, the chosen scenario metric parameters are packet rate of 35 packets per second, area 500 m², packet size 512 bytes. With the range chosen for scenario metric, the performance metric parameters range obtained was, Energy Consumption 0.1–3.2 J, end to end delay 3.2–4.8 ms, PDR 90–100 which demonstrated the capability of predictable and repeatable performance.     

Deploying power‐aware on‐demand (PAOD) schemes over routing protocols of mobile wireless ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is an autonomous collection of mobile nodes that communicate over relatively bandwidth‐constrained wireless links. MANETs need efficient algorithms to determine network connectivity, link scheduling, and routing. An important issue in network routing for MANETs is to conserve power while still achieve a high packet success rate. Traditional MANET routing protocols do not count for such concern. They all assume working with unlimited power reservoirs. Several ideas have been proposed for adding power‐awareness capabilities to ad hoc networks. Most of these proposals tackle the issue by either proposing new power‐aware routing protocols or modifying existing routing protocols through the deployment of power information as cost functions. None of them deal with counter‐measures that ought to be taken when nodes suffer from low power reserves and are subject to shut down in mid of normal network operations. In this paper, power‐awareness is added to a well‐known traditional routing protocol, the ad hoc on‐demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. The original algorithm is modified to deal with situations in which nodes experience low power reserves. Two schemes are proposed and compared with the original protocol using different performance metrics such as average end‐to‐end delays, transmission success rates, and throughputs. These schemes provide capabilities for AODV to deal with situations in which operating nodes have almost consumed their power reserves. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A secure and trust based on-demand multipath routing scheme for self-organized mobile ad-hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a self-configurable network connected by wireless links. This type of network is only suitable for provisional communication links as it is infrastructure-less and there is no centralized control. Providing QoS and security aware routing is a challenging task in this type of network due to dynamic topology and limited resources. The main purpose of secure and trust based on-demand multipath routing is to find trust based secure route from source to destination which will satisfy two or more end to end QoS constraints. In this paper, the standard ad hoc on-demand multi-path distance vector protocol is extended as the base routing protocol to evaluate this model. The proposed mesh based multipath routing scheme to discover all possible secure paths using secure adjacent position trust verification protocol and better link optimal path find by the Dolphin Echolocation Algorithm for efficient communication in MANET. The performance analysis and numerical results show that our proposed routing protocol produces better packet delivery ratio, reduced packet delay, reduced overheads and provide security against vulnerabilities and attacks.     

An EDRI-based approach for detecting and eliminating cooperative black hole nodes in MANET

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configurable, self-maintenance network with wireless, mobile nodes. Special features of MANET like dynamic topology, hop-by-hop communications and open network boundary, made security highly challengeable in this network. From security aspect, routing protocols are highly vulnerable against a wide range of attacks like black hole. In black hole attack malicious node injects fault routing information to the network and leads all data packets toward it-self. In this paper, we proposed an approach to detect and eliminate cooperative malicious nodes in MANET with AODV routing protocol. A data control packet is used in order to check the nodes in selected path; also, by using an Extended Data Routing Information table, all malicious nodes in selected path are detected, then, eliminated from network. For evaluation, our approach and a previous work have been implemented using Opnet 14 in different scenarios. Referring to simulation results, the proposed approach decreases packet overhead and delay of security mechanism with no false positive detection. In addition, network throughput is improved by using the proposed approach.     

基于稳定闭域的异构无线网络混合路由策略

分析了异构的网络模型,并提出了一种基于MANET稳定闭域的混合路由策略,使得基于该路由策略设计的路由协议能够实时地根据本地拓扑状态进行转换,在稳定闭域内使用AODV提高路由转发的效率。当数据分组转发到闭域边界后,将转换为改进的Prophet路由继续在非连通区域内寻路,以充分利用MANET与DTN路由的优势。仿真实验证明了该路由策略的可行性,通过比较多种路由算法验证了在特定的异构网络环境下该路由策略的高效性。     

Ant Optimized Link Quality for Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector

The wireless interfaces in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) have limited transmission range and traffic is relayed through intermediate nodes to ensure intra node communication. Routing plays an important role in network reliability and performance. MANET’s characteristics like mobility and resource constraints adversely affect routing performance. A new MANET routing method based on Ad hoc On- demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Ant Colony Optimization is proposed in this paper. Ad hoc networks can emulate achievement of complex solutions with limited intelligence and individual capacity as seen in ant communities. A new link quality metric enhances AODV routing algorithm to enable it to handle link quality to evaluate routes between nodes.     

Routing Technology in Wireless Sensor Network Based on Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm

With rapid development of wireless communication, sensor, micro power system and electronic technology, the research on wireless sensor network has attracted more and more attention. The work proposed routing algorithm in wireless sensor network based on ant colony optimization by analyzing routing protocol and utilizing advanced idea. Ant colony optimization algorithm has advantages in implementing local work, supporting multiple paths and integrating link quality into pheromone formation. In routing selection, the work calculated probability that node is selected as the next hop according to pheromone concentration on the path. With characteristics including self-organization, dynamic and multipath, ant colony optimization algorithm is suitable for routing in wireless sensor network. With low routing cost, good adaptability and multipath, the algorithm balanced energy consumption to prolong network lifetime. In terms of simulation and experiments, ant colony algorithm was proved to be suitable for finding optimal routing in wireless sensor network, thus achieving design goal of routing algorithm.