Water security and the pursuit of food,energy, and earth systems resilience

ABSTRACT

This article addresses the emergence and interrelation of food, energy, and water security in terms of resource use and the ensuing societal and environmental outcomes. For decades, food security and energy security have been well-accepted, operational concepts. Water security is the latest entrant, yet the implications of water insecurity for food, energy and earth systems resilience have not been adequately considered. This article examines how and why this is so – particularly with growing water scarcity and insecurity that may compete with energy and food security – and emphasizes the critical need to link water-energy-food nexus approaches to earth systems resilience.     

Discussion of the paper entitled “Ethiopian Interests in the Division of the Nile River Waters”[l]

ABSTRACT

It is argued that the establishment of tradable water rights will play an important role in increasing productivity and sustainability of water use in developing countries. Due to economic growth, scarcity is expected to be conducive to water market development. This article presents the potential for and feasibility of markets in water rights in Jordan through a comparative study of Chile, Mexico, and California. Many lessons were learned from the experiences of those countries concerning water markets. The transformation of these lessons to the Jordanian context is faced with some fundamental challenges in terms of water legislation, institutional structure, and data. Water legislation must deal with externalities, dispute, and third-party effect. Adopting a new water act and review of water laws is essential for better water resources management and assured public input and feedback. Market oriented policy should be introduced only on a pilot basis in terms of pricing. Policy makers believe that dealing with future water scarcity in Jordan will be achieved through better management and utilization of water using both conventional and nonconventional sources. Moreover; policy makers and farmers in Jordan expressed strong reservations on intersectoral water transfers because of the importance of water to the Jordanian economy.     

Implications of biomass strategy for communities and policies

This article summarizes present knowledge of the vulnerability to water scarcity of semi‐arid Third World countries. Their predicament is explained in terms of four parallel modes of water scarcity, superimposed on one another, two of natural origin and two human‐induced. The authors conclude that long‐term planning within the environmental constraints imposed by water scarcity is crucial, and calls for a new awareness among high‐level experts and policy makers. Careful land and water use planning based on the water‐balance method is a key component, but depends on expanding traditional water resources assessment methods developed in the temperate zone to incorporate root zone water storage, differences in groundwater recharge, and landscape zonation in water‐producing v water‐consuming or evaporating areas.     

Responding to water challenges in Greece through desalination: energy considerations

Abstract

Desalination technology, and reverse osmosis in particular, is used by several island authorities in Greece to address water scarcity. However, this is a highly energy-intensive technique, requiring the consumption of significant quantities of fossil fuels. The case of Syros Island is presented, to demonstrate the strong water–energy link in the operation of desalination plants. The article also discusses the use of renewable energy sources as a means for reducing the energy intensity of desalination.     

Multi-criteria Decision Analysis: A Strategic Planning Tool for Water Loss Management

Water utilities particularly in the developing countries continue to operate with considerable inefficiencies in terms of water and revenue losses. With increasing water demand and scarcity, utilities require effective strategies for optimum use of available water resources. Diverse water loss reduction options exist. Deciding on which option to choose amidst conflicting multiple criteria and different interests of stakeholders is a challenging task. In this paper, an integrated multi-criteria decision-aiding framework for strategic planning of water loss management is presented. The PROMETHEE II method was applied within the framework in prioritizing water loss reduction options for Kampala city. A strategic plan that combines selective mains and service lines replacement and pressure management as priorities is the best compromise based on preferences of the decision makers and seven evaluation criteria characterized by financial-economic, environmental, public health, technical and social impacts. The results show that the most preferred options are those that enhance water supply reliability, public health and water conservation measures. This study demonstrates how decision theory coupled with operational research techniques could be applied in practice to solve complex water management and planning problems.     

The Virtual Water Metaphor Enhances Policy Discussions Regarding Scarce Resources

Abstract

In a recent issue of Water International, three authors discuss their views of the virtual water metaphor that is used to describe the water embedded in crops that are traded in international markets. The term ‘virtual water’ was created originally to gain the attention of public officials responsible for choosing policies that influence water use in arid regions. Over time, both the terminology and the scope of the virtual water metaphor have been extended beyond the original purpose. This paper supports the view that the virtual water metaphor is helpful in encouraging public officials to consider the scarcity value (opportunity cost) of water when designing policies that influence water use. The paper proposes, also, that the policy relevance of the virtual water metaphor is found primarily in its application to issues regarding the supply of agricultural products, rather than demand. The distinction between supply and demand issues and the potential value of the virtual water metaphor in policy discussions regarding supply are demonstrated using three examples of water allocation decisions, described within the framework of economic optimization. The examples include wheat production in Saudi Arabia and the production of sudangrass and ethanol in the United States.     

To what end? Drip irrigation and the water–energy–food nexus in Morocco

This article draws on three case studies of drip irrigation adoption in Morocco to consider the water–energy–food nexus concept from a bottom-up perspective. Findings indicate that small farmers' adoption of drip irrigation is conditional, that water and energy efficiency does not necessarily reduce overall consumption, and that adoption of drip irrigation (and policies supporting it) can create winners and losers. The article concludes that, although the water–energy–food WEF nexus concept may offer useful insights, its use in policy formulation should be tempered with caution. Technical options that appear beneficial at the conceptual level can have unintended consequences in practice, and policies focused on issues of scarcity and efficiency may exacerbate other dimensions of poverty and inequality.     

Statistical Domestic Water Demand Model for the West Bank

Abstract

The water balance in the West Bank shows a severe deficit. Scenarios and strategies are formulated in order to overcome the deficit problem. These include options for better management of the existing water resources and the enhancement of new resources. This paper focuses on demand modeling as one of the key issues for effective water management. Although past literature about demand modeling is comparatively rich for different regions in the world, this research provides a unique study, due to the past political situation in the Middle East, for water demand modeling in the West Bank. The developed statistical domestic water demand model will assess the factors which influence domestic water use, and determine the parameters that may help in demand management. Rammallah City is used as a case study to illustrate the proposed framework of the analysis. The developed model indicates that water utility authorities can use price as a tool to ration water or encourage reduced water consumption in households.     

Energy for water utilization in China and policy implications for integrated planning

Abstract

Significant energy resources are needed for traditional and nontraditional water utilization in China. Yet the interlinkages between water and energy have not received adequate attention in the country. To address this gap, this article disaggregates and quantifies the magnitude and direction of energy and water flows in China at the national level through Sankey diagrams. Spatial distributions of energy use by different components of the water supply were further mapped at the provincial level to discern regional differences. The results of this study show that the total energy consumption by water abstraction, treatment and distribution, as well as waste treatment and reuse, amounts to 193.5 TWh of electricity, or about 4% of the total national electricity usage. The outcome of this study offers important policy implications for integrated water and energy planning and management and will contribute to achieving the goal of low-energy water utilization in the future.     

Impacts of Global Climate Change Scenarios on Water Supply and Demand in Jordan

Abstract

The potential impact of global climate change is one of the least addressed factors in water resources planning in developing countries. The potential impacts of climate change are examined for Jordan, where a methodology is presented for improved management of water demand under the uncertainties associated with climate change. A temperature/precipitation sensitivity model is constructed and combined with water demand forecasts to project deficits for the year 2020. Deficit reducing options are then evaluated in terms of social and economic viability. The study concludes that only some of the deficits may be alleviated, illustrating the significance of considering climate change in planning for countries that already experience water imbalances.     

Man-made Rivers: A New Approach to Water Resources Development in Dry Areas

ABSTRACT

Poor surface and groundwater resources distribution on the national, regional, and global levels has created severe water shortages in several parts of the world. The construction of Man-made Rivers (MMRs) to achieve a more desirable distribution of available water supplies is both technically feasible and economically rational. The Libyan experience with its Great MMR Project is briefly described and its results are introduced as an example to support the above conclusions. Similar future projects may be constructed to serve other water scarcity zones such as the countries of the Middle East, North Africa. and the Southwestern U.S.A.     

A Dynamic Model for Vulnerability Assessment of Regional Water Resources in Arid Areas: A Case Study of Bayingolin, China

Water scarcity is a common problem in many countries, especially those located in arid zones. The vulnerability of water resources due to climate change is an imperative research focus in the field of water resources management. In this study, a System Dynamics (SD) model was developed to simulate the water supply-and-demand process in Bayingolin, a prefecture in China, and to evaluate water resources vulnerability currently as well as in the future. The model was calibrated and validated using historical data. Three alternative scenarios were designed by changing parameters to test the vulnerability of water resources: i) increase the Wastewater Treatment Rate by 50 %; ii) decrease the Irrigation Water Demand per Hectare by 20 %; iii) increase Total Water Supply by 5 %. Results show that the baseline vulnerability of study region is high. The agricultural irrigation is the largest water use, and the water demand structure will change in future. Decreasing the irrigation water demand is the most suitable intervention to relatively reduce the vulnerability. Results also demonstrated that SD is a suitable method to explore management options for a complex water supply and demand system.     

Why Is Water Pricing Ineffective for Deficit Irrigation Schemes? A Case Study in Southern Spain

This paper explores the impact on water demand of the adoption of deficit and precision irrigation as a farmer’s attempt to respond to water scarcity by maximising water productivity. The case study is characterised by the intensive use of deficit irrigation techniques in olive groves, which account for 50% of all irrigated land in southern Spain. These technologies have an important influence on the structure of the water demand. This study reveals that following the adoption of such technologies, water demand does not respond to moderate changes in water price, unless price increases become so great that they reach a threshold price representing a disproportionate and unaffordable social impact. This fact has significant consequences for water policy as water pricing becomes an ineffective instrument for managing water demand in a context characterised by resource scarcity and farmers’ adoption of deficit irrigation techniques.     

Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources

Abstract

A critical analysis of the present situation on the global water resources assessment is made. Basic data and methodological approaches used by the author for the assessment and prediction of water resources, water use and water availability on the global scale are briefly described. On the basis of data generalization of the world hydrological network new data are given on the dynamics of renewable water resources of the continents, physiographic and economic regions, selected countries as well as on the river water inflow to the world ocean. The results of the assessments for the 20^th century and for the future before 2010–2025 on the water supply for municipal, industrial and agricultural needs as well as an additional evaporation from reservoirs are presented. Loads on water resources and water availability depending on socio-economic and phisiographic factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discovered. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different regions and countries are discussed     

The exposure of a fresh fruit and vegetable supply chain to global water-related risks

ABSTRACT

We have combined estimates of the UK’s supply of fresh fruit and vegetables (1996 – 2015) with estimates of water requirements and water scarcity in producing countries, to identify where the supply is exposed to physical, regulatory and reputational water risks and how this has changed over time. Some 76% of the freshwater consumed in the supply of fresh fruit and vegetables to the UK is withdrawn overseas. The supply chain is particularly exposed to water risks in Spain, Egypt, South Africa, Chile, Morocco, Israel and Peru. Exposure has increased over time.     

The Role of Desalination in Meeting Water Supply Demands in Western Asia

Abstract

The increasing gap between the supply and demand for water in the Economic and Social Commission of Western Asia (ESCWA) member countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) can be attributed to the limited availability of surface water, mining of fossil groundwater sources, and water pollution mainly of shallow aquifers, deficient institutional structure, poor management processes, and inapt allocation of financial resources. The non-sustainable use of natural water resources to meet the escalating water demand has also contributed to the depletion and deterioration of water quality and quantity. To meet water supply shortages in the domestic sector, water desalination has been entrenched as a viable option for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which includes the following countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The objective of the paper is to investigate the role of water desalination in meeting the water demands in the ESCWA member countries. The significant role of desalination is highlighted with emphasis in evaluating not only its production trends, processes, and costs, but also its capacity in the provision of water demands. Water desalination has become a major and staunch water source for a number of large urban centers. For such countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar and the coastal zone areas of Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia, desalination represents one of the most feasible and strategic alternative options for their current and future domestic water supply requirement. Given the high consumption rate from this source and its high production cost, fundamental efforts must be integrated and invested in both research and development programs to implement comprehensive conservation measures that would lead to a reduction in the consumption rates. Parallel to these achievements, efforts should be directed within the context of integrated management of water resources, to identify alternative potential water resources, to meet future water challenges.     

Industrial water use estimate in Bangkok metropolitan area and its vicinity

Abstract

Water is essential to industrial development. Due to the groundwater control measures in the Bangkok Municipal Area and its vicinity, the actual amount of industrial water use needs to be assessed. The study proposes an estimation method of industrial water use in the area, using the existing registered data from the Ministry of Industry. With the derived water use unit for both domestic and processing purposes, the distribution of industrial water use by type and location in the study area can be derived. More industrial water demand was confirmed from the questionnaire survey and more groundwater wells tended to be developed to solve water deficit. Integrated water resources development and a more persuasive industrial water saving policy for the area need to be considered in order to cope with increasing industrial water demand and groundwater control policy.     

Water Scarcity in the Twenty-first Century

As we approach the next century, more than a quarter of the world's population or a third of the population in developing countries live in regions that will experience severe water scarcity. This paper reports on a study to project water supply and demand for 118 countries over the 1990-2025 period. The nature and geographic focus of growing water scarcity are identified. In the semi-arid regions of Asia and the Middle East, which include some of the major breadbaskets of the world, the ground water table is falling at an alarming rate. There is an urgent need to focus the attention of both professionals and policy makers on the problems of ground water depletion, which must be seen as the major threat to food security in the coming century.     

Water,Wastewater, and Environmental Security Problems: A Case Study of Mexico City and the Mezquital Valley

ABSTRACT

Increasing social tensions and conflicts can now be observed due to growing water scarcities and higher wastewater discharges in many parts of the world. These conflicts can be analyzed in two ways. First, a social conflict can be responsible for creating water scarcity by reducing accessibility, destroying water systems, and reducing water availability. Second, water resources scarcity, both in terms of quantity and quality, can often be the cause of conflicts in a society. The article focuses on the second type of conflict by analyzing several examples from Mexico: especially conflicts that have been generated by the use of the wastewaters of Mexico City for irrigation in the Mezquital Valley since 1912.