Thermo-mechanical characterization of Manicaria Saccifera natural fabric reinforced poly-lactic acid composite lamina

The development and thermo-mechanical characterization of a novel green composite lamina, made of PolyLactic Acid (PLA) reinforced with a natural fabric extracted from Manicaria Saccifera palm, are presented. The composite was characterized by thermal-analysis (TGA), tensile, flexural, and izod impact tests, and scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). TGA analysis showed that the degradation process of the composite started earlier than that of neat PLA due to the lower thermal stability of the fabric. The mechanical tests showed that PLA properties were improved. The tensile strength, elastic modulus and impact resistance were improved by 26%, 51% and 56% respectively. Good dispersion and mechanical interlocking of PLA into the fabric were seen by SEM explaining the improvements of the mechanical properties of the composite. In summary, the good tensile properties and the excellent energy absorption capabilities of the MF/PLA composite lamina show great potential of Manicaria fabric as reinforcement in green composites.     

Manufacture and characterisation of thermoplastic composites made from PLA/hemp co-wrapped hybrid yarn prepregs

PLA/hemp co-wrapped hybrid yarns were produced by wrapping PLA filaments around a core composed of a 400 twists/m and 25 tex hemp yarn (Cannabis sativa L) and 18 tex PLA filaments. The hemp content varied between 10 and 45 mass%, and the PLA wrapping density around the core was 150 and 250 turns/m. Composites were fabricated by compression moulding of 0/90 bidirectional prepregs, and characterised regarding porosity, mechanical strength and thermal properties by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Mechanical tests showed that the tensile and flexural strengths of the composites markedly increased with the fibre content, reaching 59.3 and 124.2 MPa when reinforced with 45 mass% fibre, which is approximately 2 and 3.3 times higher compared to neat PLA. Impact strength of the composites decreased initially up to 10 mass% fibre; while higher fibre loading (up to 45 mass%) caused an increase in impact strength up to 26.3 kJ/m², an improvement of about 2 times higher compared to neat PLA. The composites made from the hybrid yarn with a wrapping density of 250 turns/m showed improvements in mechanical properties, due to the lower porosity. The fractured surfaces were investigated by scanning electron microscopy to study the fibre/matrix interface.     

Thermomechanical properties of bio-based composites made from a lactic acid thermoset resin and flax and flax/basalt fibre reinforcements

Low viscosity thermoset bio-based resin was synthesised from lactic acid, allyl alcohol and pentaerythritol. The resin was impregnated into cellulosic fibre reinforcement from flax and basalt and then compression moulded at elevated temperature to produce thermoset composites. The mechanical properties of composites were characterised by flexural, tensile and Charpy impact testing whereas the thermal properties were analysed by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results showed a decrease in mechanical properties with increase in fibre load after 40 wt.% for the neat flax composite due to insufficient fibre wetting and an increase in mechanical properties with increase fibre load up to 60 wt.% for the flax/basalt composite. The results of the ageing test showed that the mechanical properties of the composites deteriorate with ageing; however, the flax/basalt composite had better mechanical properties after ageing than the flax composite before ageing.     

生物降解聚酯弹性体粒子改性聚乳酸复合材料的制备及性能

以不同粒径的羧基封端生物降解聚酯弹性体粒子(CBEP)改性聚乳酸(PLA)制备了CBEP/PLA复合材料,对复合材料的力学、结晶与降解等性能进行了测试,并研究了CBEP对PLA性能的影响及作用机理。结果表明,CBEP可显著提高PLA的韧性,复合材料样条在拉伸时出现了颈缩现象,尤其是添加了7.5% (与PLA的质量比)粒径在200 nm的CBEP-a的复合材料的断裂伸长率由纯PLA的4.6%提高至155%,而复合材料的缺口冲击强度最高达到了纯PLA的2倍。同时CBEP可提高PLA的结晶性能,其中添加7.5%粒径在200 nm的CBEP-a的复合材料的等温结晶半结晶时间较纯PLA缩短了21.4%。而降解实验结果表明,添加了10%粒径在200 nm的CBEP-a的复合材料在脂肪酶环境下与土壤掩埋环境下的降解质量损失率分别由纯PLA的0.34%与0.25%,提高至2.52%与1.20%。CBEP/PLA复合材料在生物医药与环保材料等领域具有广阔的发展与应用前景。      

Influence of alkali treatment on the interfacial and physico-mechanical properties of industrial hemp fibre reinforced polylactic acid composites

The focus of this work was to produce short (random and aligned) and long (aligned) industrial hemp fibre reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) composites by compression moulding. Fibres were treated with alkali to improve bonding with PLA. The percentage crystallinity of PLA in composites was found to be higher than that for neat PLA and increased with alkali treatment of fibres which is believed to be due to the nucleating ability of the fibres. Interfacial shear strength (IFSS) results demonstrated that interfacial bonding was also increased by alkali treatment of fibres which also lead to improved composite mechanical properties. The best overall properties were achieved with 30 wt.% long aligned alkali treated fibre/PLA composites produced by film stacking technique leading to a tensile strength of 82.9 MPa, Young’s modulus of 10.9 GPa, flexural strength of 142.5 MPa, flexural modulus of 6.5 GPa, impact strength of 9 kJ/m², and a fracture toughness of 3 MPa m^1/2.     

Ductile unidirectional continuous rayon fibre-reinforced hierarchical composites

Endless rayon fibres (Cordenka®) were used to reinforce polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) nanocomposites containing 2.5 wt.% nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) to create truly green hierarchical composites. Unidirectional (UD) composites with 50–55% fibre volume fraction were produced using a solvent-free continuous wet powder impregnation method. The composites exhibit ductile failure behaviour with a strain-to-failure of more than 10% albeit using a very brittle matrix. Improvements at a model composite level were translated into higher mechanical properties of UD hierarchical composites. The Young’s moduli of rayon fibre-reinforced (NFC-reinforced) PHB composites were about 15 GPa. The tensile and flexural strength of hierarchical PHB composites increased by 15% and 33% as compared to the rayon fibre-reinforced neat PHB composites. This suggests that incorporation of NFC into the PHB matrix binds the rayon fibres, which does affect the load transfer between the constituents resulting in composites with better mechanical properties.     

Comparison of the thermal,dynamic mechanical and morphological properties of PLA-Lignin & PLA-Tannin particulate green composites

The study of Lignin and Tannin as filler materials in PLA-based polymeric systems has been uncommon in literature. Composites of PLA-Lignin with 5, 10, 15 wt% Lignin and PLA-Tannin with 5, 10, 15 wt% Tannin were fabricated using injection moulding. SEM morphology reveals Lignin forms droplet like dispersions within the PLA matrix in contrast to Tannin. The particle size of Lignin within the matrix is also 10–150 times smaller than Tannin. Isothermal frequency sweeps on the composites show that storage modulus of PLA-Tannin composites starts to degrade at 15 wt% filler concentration and damping rises. PLA-Lignin composites do not show such degradation in storage modulus. The tensile strength of both PLA-Lignin and PLA-Tannin composites falls with increase in filler content. Lignin has a more inhibitory effect on PLA crystallization than Tannin. The onset of thermal degradation of PLA-Lignin and PLA-Tannin composites occurs at slightly lower temperatures than pure PLA.     

Electron beam irradiation enhanced of Hibiscus cannabinus fiber strengthen polylactic acid composites

This paper reported the effects of increasing Hibiscus cannabinus fiber (also known as kenaf fiber) loading level on properties of electron beam irradiated polylactic acid/low density polyethylene (PLA/LDPE). PLA and LDPE were compounded with 5–20 parts per hundred resins (phr) of kenaf respectively to enhance mechanical properties. The compounded kenaf added PLA/LDPE samples were electron beam irradiated from 15 to 60 kGy. The physical properties of kenaf added PLA/LDPE samples were characterized using gel content, X-Ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy analysis. The results showed that the increasing of irradiation dosages in PLA/LDPE have gradually increased the gel content and tensile strength due to the formation of crosslinking networks in polymer matrix. However, the higher loading level of kenaf and irradiation dosages could decrease the elongation at break of PLA/LDPE samples. This is due to the restriction of polymer chains mobility as resulted by the poor interfacial adhesion between polymer matrix and kenaf particles as well as the formation of crosslinking networks in polymer matrix limits the sliding of polymer chains. Meanwhile, the increasing of kenaf loading level also has gradually increased the crystallinity of PLA/LDPE matrix. It is concluded that the electron beam irradiation dosages and amount of kenaf fiber in PLA/LDPE matrix should be kept at maximum 45 kGy and 15 phr, respectively for better combination to enhance the properties of the composites.     

Preparation and properties of self-reinforced poly(lactic acid) composites based on oriented tapes

The inherent brittleness and poor thermal resistance of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) are two main challenges toward a wider industrial application of this bioplastic. In the present work, through the development of self-reinforced PLA (SR-PLA) or “all-PLA” composites, the high brittleness and low heat deflection temperature (HDT) of PLA have been overcome, while simultaneously improving the tensile strength and modulus of SR-PLA. The obtained composites are fully biobased, recyclable and under the right conditions compostable. For the creation of SR-PLA composites, first a tape extrusion process was optimized to ensure superior mechanical properties. The results show that SR-PLA composites exhibited enhanced moduli (2.5 times) and tensile strengths (2 times) and showed 14 times increase in impact energy compared to neat PLA. Finally, the HDT of SR-PLA was also increased by about 26 °C compared to neat PLA, mainly as a result of an increase in modulus and crystallinity.     

The effect of silane treated- and untreated-talc on the mechanical and physico-mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/newspaper fibers/talc hybrid composites

This paper evaluates the effect of the addition of silane treated- and untreated- talc as the fillers on the mechanical and physico-mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/recycled newspaper cellulose fibers (RNCF)/talc hybrid composites. For this purpose, 10 wt% of a talc with and without silane treatment were incorporated into PLA/RNCF (60 wt%/30 wt%) composites that were processed by a micro-compounding and molding system. PLA is utilized is a bio-based polymer that made from dextrose, a derivative of corn. Talc is also a natural product. The RNCF and talc hybrid reinforcements of PLA polymer matrix were targeted to design and engineer bio-based composites of balanced properties with added advantages of cost benefits besides the eco-friendliness of all the components in the composites. In this work, the flexural and impact properties of PLA/RNCF composites improved significantly with the addition of 10 wt% talc. The flexural and impact strength of these hybrid composites were found to be significantly higher than that made from either PLA/RNCF. The hybrid composites showed improved properties such as flexural strength of 132 MPa and flexural modulus of 15.3 GPa, while the unhybridized PLA/RNCF based composites exhibited flexural strength and modulus values of 77 MPa and 6.7 GPa, respectively. The DMA storage modulus and the loss modulus of the PLA/RNCF hybrid composites were found to increase, whereas the mechanical loss factor (tan delta) was found to decrease. The storage modulus increased with the addition of talc, because the talc generated a stiffer interface in the polymer matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms of neat PLA and of the hybrid composites showed nearly the similar glass transition temperatures and melting temperatures. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of the fracture surface of Notched Izod impact specimen of 10 wt% talc filled PLA/RNCF composite showed well filler particle dispersion in the matrix and no large aggregates are present. The comparison data of mechanical properties among samples filled with silane-treated- and untreated- talc fillers showed that the hybrid composites filled with silane treated talc displayed the better mechanical prosperities relative to the other hybrid composites. Talc-filled RNCF-reinforced polypropylene (PP) hybrid composites were also made in the same way that of PLA hybrid composites for a comparison. The PLA hybrid bio-based composites showed much improvement in mechanical properties as compared to PP-based hybrid counterparts. This suggests that these PLA hybrid bio-based composites have a potential to replace glass fibers in many applications that do not require very high load bearing capabilities and these recycled newspaper cellulose fibers could be a good candidate reinforcement fiber of high performance hybrid biocomposites.     

Fabrication and characterization of fully biodegradable natural fiber-reinforced poly(lactic acid) composites

Polymer composites were fabricated with poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and cellulosic natural fibers combining the wet-laid fiber sheet forming method with the film stacking composite-making process. The natural fibers studied included hardwood high yield pulp, softwood high yield pulp, and bleached kraft softwood pulp fibers. Composite mechanical and thermal properties were characterized. The incorporation of pulp fibers significantly increased the composite storage moduli and elasticity, promoted the cold crystallization and recrystallization of PLA, and dramatically improved composite tensile moduli and strengths. The highest composite tensile strength achieved was 121 MPa, nearly one fold higher than that of the neat PLA. The overall fiber efficiency factors for composite tensile strengths derived from the micromechanics models were found to be much higher than that of conventional random short fiber-reinforced composites, suggesting the fiber–fiber bond also positively contributed to the composites’ strengths.     

POE-g-MA对纳米CaCO_3/聚乳酸复合材料热及流变性能影响

以纳米碳酸钙(Nano-CaCO_3)和聚乳酸(PLA)为原料,马来酸酐接枝乙烯-辛烯共聚物(POE-g-MA)为增容剂,利用熔融挤出热拉-骤冷工艺制备了一系列Nano-CaCO_3/PLA复合材料。分别采用SEM、DSC、TG、毛细管流变仪(CR)和万能实验机研究了Nano-CaCO_3/PLA复合材料的界面相容性、热性能、流变性能与力学性能。结果表明:与纯PLA相比,当Nano-CaCO_3含量达到15wt%,Nano-CaCO_3/PLA复合材料团聚现象明显,其结晶度、最大热分解温度与拉伸强度分别下降1.9%、15.5℃与28.2%,弯曲强度和断裂伸长率分别提高37.5%和29.3%,而相应添加4wt%POE-g-MA增容剂的Nano-CaCO_3/PLA复合材料分散形态得到改善,其结晶度和拉伸强度分别下降4.2%和25.2%;最大热分解温度、弯曲强度和断裂伸长率分别提高5.8℃、25.3%和174.4%;同时POE-g-MA增加了Nano-CaCO_3/PLA复合材料的剪切黏度。     

New development of self-damping MWCNT composites

Epoxy resin modified with nanofillers cannot be used alone for high performance structural applications due to their low-mechanical properties. Therefore, the objective of this work is to hybridize unidirectional and quasi-isotropic glass fiber composite laminates with 1.0 wt% multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Results from flexural and damping characterizations showed that the flexural strength and modulus, storage modulus, and damping ratio of MWCNT/E nanocomposite are improved by about 7% ± 1.5% compared to neat epoxy. The enhancement in the flexural strength of quasi-isotropic laminate (20.7%) is about ten times higher than that for unidirectional laminate (2.1%). The flexural moduli of the nano-hybridized laminates are reduced by about 7.5–10.8%. Accordingly, the ultimate failure strain and damping properties are evidently improved. The improvement in damping ratio in some cases is about 100%. The high correlation coefficient (0.9995) between flexural and storage moduli suggests using the dynamic nondestructive tests for evaluation the elastic properties of composites.     

Green composites based on polypropylene matrix and hydrophobized spend coffee ground (SCG) powder

Green composites were prepared with polypropylene matrix and 20 wt.% spent coffee ground (SCG) powder for uses as a wood plastic composite (WPC). The effects of hydrophobic treatment with palmitoyl chloride on SCG powder is compared with conventional surface treatment based on silanization with (3-glycidyloxypropyl) trimethoxysilane and the use of a maleated copolymer compatibilizer (polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride, PP-g-MA) in terms of mechanical properties, morphology, thermal properties and water uptake. Composites were previously mixed in a twin-screw co-rotating extruder and subsequently subjected to injection moulding. The comparative effect of the different surface treatments and or compatibilizers on mechanical performance was studied by flexural, impact tests and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA-torsion); in addition, the stabilizing effect of SCG was revealed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravymetric analysis (TGA). As one of the main drawbacks of wood plastic composites and natural fibre reinforced plastics is the moisture gain, water uptake tests were carried out in order to quantify the effectiveness of the hydrophobization process with palmitoyl chloride. Results show a slight increase in flexural modulus for composites with both untreated and treated/compatibilized SCG powder (20 wt.%). As expected, thermal stability is improved as indicated by an increase of more than 8% in the onset degradation temperature by DSC if compared to unfilled polypropylene. Fracture analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) shows better particle dispersion for PP-SCG composites with hydrophobized SCG with palmitoyl chloride treatment; in addition a remarkable decrease in water uptake is observed for composites with hydrophobized SCG.     

Mechanical and thermal properties of chicken feather fiber/PLA green composites

Chicken feather fiber (CFF)/reinforced poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites were processed using a twin-screw extruder and an injection molder. The tensile moduli of CFF/PLA composites with different CFF content (2, 5, 8 and 10 wt%) were found to be higher than that of pure PLA, and a maximum value of 4.2 GPa (16%↑) was attained with 5 wt% of CFF without causing any substantial weight increment. The morphology, evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), indicated that an uniform dispersion of CFF in the PLA matrix existed. The mechanical and thermal properties of pure PLA and CFF/PLA composites were compared using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), thermomechanical analysis (TMA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). DMA results revealed that the storage modulus of the composites increased with respect to the pure polymer, whereas the mechanical loss factor (tan δ) decreased. The results of TGA experiments indicated that the addition of CFF enhanced the thermal stability of the composites as compared to pure PLA. The outcome obtained from this study is believed to assist the development of environmentally-friendly composites from biodegradable polymers, especially for converting agricultural waste – chicken feather into useful products.     

Hierarchical composites reinforced with robust short sisal fibre preforms utilising bacterial cellulose as binder

A novel robust non-woven sisal fibre preform was manufactured using a papermaking process utilising nanosized bacterial cellulose (BC) as binder for the sisal fibres. It was found that BC provides significant mechanical strength to the sisal fibre preforms. This can be attributed to the high stiffness and strength of the BC network. Truly green non-woven fibre preform reinforced hierarchical composites were prepared by infusing the fibre preforms with acrylated epoxidised soybean oil (AESO) using vacuum assisted resin infusion, followed by thermal curing. Both the tensile and flexural properties of the hierarchical composites showed significant improvements over polyAESO and neat sisal fibre preform reinforced polyAESO. These results were corroborated by the thermo-mechanical behaviour of the (hierarchical) composites, which showed an increased storage modulus and enhanced fibre–matrix stress transfer. Micromechanical modelling was also performed on the (hierarchical) composites. By using BC as binder for short sisal fibres, added benefits such as the high Young’s modulus of BC, enhanced fibre–fibre and fibre–matrix stress transfer can be utilised in the resulting hierarchical composites.     

Valorisation of macroalgae industrial by-product as filler in thermoplastic polymer composites

Poly(lactic acid) composites filled with algae industrial by-product were prepared using melt-mixing process at filler weight fractions of 20, 30 and 40 wt%. Algae by-products were after the extraction of alginate (AW) and mixed with diatomaceous earth (DE). The composition and morphology of both fillers were analysed. Composites’ mechanical properties and thermal degradation were investigated as a function of filler type and content. The addition of DE-filler at 40 wt% resulted in the increase of Young’s modulus by 20% compared to the neat PLA. The presence of small DE particles improved stress distribution and led to stronger composites as compared with AW-filled. Cold crystallization of PLA was induced by small algae particles. Thermal degradation of all composites started at lower temperatures compared with neat PLA. A glow-wire test was carried out to evaluate the effect of inorganic matter on the ignition of the material.     

Utilization of natural montmorillonite modified with dimethyl,dehydrogenated tallow quaternary ammonium salt as reinforcement in almond shell flour–polypropylene bio-nanocomposites

The main goal of this work was to evaluate the technical feasibility of almond shell flour (ASF) as wood substitute in the production of wood–plastic composites (WPCs). The effects of organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT), as reinforcing agent, on the mechanical and physical properties were also investigated. In order to improve the poor interfacial interaction between the hydrophilic Lignocellulosic material and hydrophobic polypropylene matrix, maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) was added as a coupling agent to all the composites studied. In the sample preparation, OMMT and ASF contents were used as variable factors. The morphology of the specimens was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques. The results of mechanical properties measurements indicated that when 3 wt.% OMMT were added, tensile and flexural properties reached their maximum values. At high level of OMMT loading (5 wt.%), increased population of OMMT lead to agglomeration and stress transfer gets blocked. The addition of OMMT filler decreased the water absorption and thickness swelling of composites. SEM study approved the good interaction of the almond shell flour with the polymer as well as the effectiveness of OMMT in improvement of the interaction. TEM study revealed better dispersion of silicate layers in WPCs loaded with 3 wt.% of OMMT. The improvement of physico-mechanical properties of composites confirmed that OMMT has good reinforcement and the optimum synergistic effect of OMMT and ASF was achieved at the combination of 3 and 50 wt.%, respectively. The findings indicated that almond shell as agro-waste material is a valuable renewable natural resource for composite production and could be utilized as a substitute for wood in composite industries.     

Characterization of thermoplastic natural fibre composites made from woven hybrid yarn prepregs with different weave pattern

This paper focuses on the effect of weave structure on mechanical behaviour and moisture absorption of the PLA/hemp woven fabric composites made by compression moulding. The unidirectional woven fabric prepregs were made from PLA (warp) and PLA/hemp wrapped-spun hybrid yarn (weft) with two different weave patterns; 8-harness satin and basket. Unidirectional composites with 30 mass% hemp content were fabricated from these prepregs, and compared to winded PLA/hemp hybrid yarn laminates with same composition. The composite from the satin fabric had significantly lowest porosities and best mechanical properties compared to the composite made from the winded hybrid yarn and basket fabric. The tensile, flexural, and impact strength were 88 MPa, 113.64 MPa, and 24.24 kJ/m², respectively. The effect of weave pattern on water absorption is significant. Although the composite from hybrid yarn laminate has larger water absorption than that of the pure PLA, it exhibits lower moisture absorption than both weaves.     

Effect of fiber surface modification on the mechanical and water absorption characteristics of sisal/polyester composites fabricated by resin transfer molding

Sisal fibers were subjected to various chemical and physical modifications such as mercerization, heating at 100 °C, permanganate treatment, benzoylation and silanization to improve the interfacial bonding with matrix. Composites were prepared by these fibers as reinforcement, using resin transfer molding (RTM). The mechanical properties such as tensile, flexural and impact strength were examined. Mercerized fiber-reinforced composites showed 36% of increase in tensile strength and 53% in Young’s modulus while the permanganate treated fiber-reinforced composites performed 25% increase in flexural strength. However, in the case of impact strength, the treatment has been found to cause a reduction. The water absorption study of these composites at different temperature revealed that it is less for the treated fiber-reinforced composites at all temperatures compared to the untreated one. SEM studies have been used to complement the results emanated from the evaluation of mechanical properties.