Experimental determination of the structural properties and strengthening mechanisms of z-pinned composite T-joints

This paper presents an experimental investigation into the efficacy of z-pins to improve the structural properties of stiffened joints made of carbon/epoxy composite. Pull-off tests were performed on T-joints without z-pins or reinforced along the skin–stiffener bond-line with z-pins to volume contents of 0.5%, 2% or 4%. Testing was performed at different pull-off load angles between 0° and 45° to the stiffener to induce different proportions of normal (through-thickness) tensile and in-plane secondary bending stresses along the skin–stiffener bond-line. It was found that z-pins do not improve the stiffness or failure initiation load of T-joints, but they are effective at raising the ultimate failure strength, failure displacement, and absorbed energy capacity. These properties increase rapidly with the z-pin content, and maximum improvements of about 75% to the ultimate strength and over 600% to the total absorbed energy capacity were achieved at the highest pin content (4% by volume). The percent improvements to the structural properties are approximately the same for the different load angles, revealing that z-pins are equally effective at resisting bond-line cracking under normal tensile or secondary bending stresses. Fractographic analysis revealed that z-pins increase the joint properties by creating bridging tractions across the bond-line crack between the stiffener and skin. The z-pins ultimately fail by a combination of debonding/pull-out from the adherends.     

复合材料加筋板低速冲击损伤及剩余压缩强度试验研究

采用落锤法对复合材料加筋板进行了低速冲击损伤（LVI）试验,根据复合材料加筋板构型,设计了冲击支持支架,研究了支持支架的间距对冲击结果的影响;用相同的冲击能量对复合材料加筋板结构中3处典型位置进行冲击,得到不同位置的损伤形貌;分别对完好件和损伤试验件进行压缩试验,将试验结果进行对比,分析不同位置的冲击损伤对结构压缩性能的影响。试验结果表明：在相同的冲击能量下,支持支架间距越小,所造成的冲击损伤越严重;在50 J冲击能量下,筋条区蒙皮处的冲击所造成的损伤不易观察,筋条间蒙皮处的冲击所造成的损伤最为明显,而筋条边缘蒙皮处的冲击可以导致筋条边缘的脱粘;冲击损伤会使加筋板屈曲载荷轻微下降,筋条间蒙皮和筋条区蒙皮冲击损伤对压缩结果影响相对较小,筋条边缘处的冲击会引起损伤处蒙皮的子层屈曲,并影响结构破坏形式,使结构压缩承载能力有较为明显的下降。     

The effect of thermal mismatch on Z-pinned laminated composite structures

Z-pinning is a method of improving the through-thickness properties of composite laminates by inserting a solid pin through the laminate prior to curing. The thermal expansion mismatch between the Z-pin and base laminate produces large residual stresses during the cure cycle. Finite element modelling has shown that these stresses are greater than the failure stress of standard resin systems indicating the resin around the Z-pin should fail. This was confirmed through microscopy, which showed cracking around the perimeter of the Z-pin. Changing the material properties and dimension of the model to represent different Z-pinning situations could not significantly reduce the residual stresses, indicating cracking should occur in all Z-pinned laminates. These results show that probably all published Z-pinning properties have been obtained from laminates that would have exhibited cracking, indicating that the improved through-thickness properties are due more to mechanical interlocking than bonding. Questions are raised about the suitability of using Z-pinned laminates in specific applications, and the effects of increased moisture ingress and long term durability.     

Numerical Analysis of Stiffener Runout Sections

The recent trend of incorporating more composite material in primary aircraft structures has highlighted the vulnerability of stiffened aerostructures to through-thickness stresses, which may lead to delamination and debonding at the skin–stiffener interface, leading to collapse. Stiffener runout regions are particularly susceptible to this problem and cannot be avoided due to the necessity to terminate stiffeners at rib intersections or at cutouts, interrupting the stiffener load path. In this paper, experimental tests relating to two different stiffener runout specimens are presented and the failure modes of both specimens are discussed in detail. A thinner-skinned specimen showed sudden and unstable crack propagation, while a thicker-skinned specimen showed initially unstable but subsequent stable crack growth. Detailed finite element models of the two specimens are developed, and it is shown how such models can explain and predict the behaviour and failure mode of stiffener runouts. The models contain continuum shell elements to model the skin and stiffener, while cohesive elements using a traction-separation law are placed at the skin–stiffener interface to effectively model the debonding which promotes structural failure.     

Fatigue Performance of Sandwich Beams With Peel Stoppers

Abstract:  This paper concerns a newly developed peel stopper for sandwich structures, which may be embedded as a core insert or an edge stiffener. The major purpose of the peel stopper is to prevent large debonds/delaminations between face sheets and core in sandwich structures in the case of failure. Experimental investigations of conventional sandwich beams and beams furnished with peel stoppers, under static and fatigue loading conditions, and with temperature monitoring, were conducted. The experimental programme included investigation of crack initiation and propagation, as well as of fatigue endurance of conventional and modified sandwich beams. The results showed that although the peel stoppers did not significantly influence the fatigue life of the sandwich beams, they were exceptionally effective in re-routing the crack propagation away from the face–core interface. Moreover, one of the two peel stopper designs presented prevented face–core debonding/delamination and total failure of the sandwich beams.     

Acoustic emission based tensile characteristics of sandwich composites

Sandwich composite static and fatigue testing results indicated the predominant failure to be the core damage followed by interfacial debonding, resin cracking and fiber rupture. Under static testing, crack was observed to initiate in the core and ensue planar propagation near the interface with the facesheets; whereas, onset of crack initiation in the facesheets served as a precursor to the catastrophic failure. Multiple failure initiation and propagation sites in the core and intermittent interfacial debonding were consistently observed under fatigue. An acoustic emission based stiffness reduction model is presented that seems to accurately identify the extent of damage in sandwich composites subjected to fatigue loading conditions.     

Simulation of pin-reinforced single-lap composite joints

A simple and efficient computational approach is presented for analyzing the benefits of through-thickness pins for restricting debond failure in joints. Experiments have shown that increases in debond resistance and ultimate strength depend on the material, size, density, location, and angle of deployment of the pins and the mechanisms of pin deformation, which are complex and strongly affected by the mode ratio of the debond crack. Here the mechanics problem is simplified by representing the effects of the pins by tractions acting on the fracture surfaces of the debond crack. The tractions are prescribed as functions of the crack displacement, which are available in simple forms that summarize the complex deformations to a reasonable accuracy. The resulting model can be used to track the evolution of competing failure mechanisms, including tensile or compressive failure of the adherends, joint debonding (creating leak, for example, if the joint is in a pipeline), and ultimate failure associated with pin rupture or pullout. Calculations illustrating complex mode ratio variations are presented for a lap joint specimen comprising curved laminate segments cut from pipes.     

Multi-level analysis of low-cost Z-pinned composite joints: Part 1: Single Z-pin behaviour

In the framework of the EU program ALCAS (advanced low-cost aircraft structure), a new Z-pinning technique was developed by EADS Innovation Works. It was used to manufacture low-cost Z-pinned junction demonstrators (L and T shaped specimens) typical of aeronautical structures. In order to understand load transfer mechanisms in this kind of assembly, a multi-level analysis was performed. Firstly, tension and shear pin behaviour was investigated as well as pin pull-out from net resin. It was demonstrated that the mechanical transfer is mainly through bonding, even when the pins are twisted. Secondly, an analytical model was proposed which predicts the maximum load capacity of a single pin. Finally this study provides the basis for a design methodology to compute ultimate loads of Z-pinned junctions under complex loading.     

Measurement and prediction of embedded copper foil fatigue crack growth in multifunctional composite structure

Copper strips embedded in glass/epoxy composite compose a discrete-path multifunctional load-bearing configuration which can conduct electricity. This combination of materials permits efficient packaging of increasingly large numbers of electrical systems being installed in aircraft and vehicle systems. It also allows systems such as large aperture antennas to be embedded within an aircraft’s load-bearing structural skin. The fatigue fracture of the embedded metal foil is of interest since composite materials tend to be more fatigue resistant. Copper embedded glass/epoxy coupons were manufactured and fatigue tested at 35% and 50% of the composite ultimate tensile strength. Nondestructive evaluation was used to measure copper crack growth and debonding at the copper-to-composite interface. The debonding plays a key role controlling the crack growth. A combined experimental-analytical methodology is defined for establishing relationships between crack tip opening angle (CTOA), crack size, and crack growth rate of the embedded copper via a combined experimental-analysis approach.     

Fatigue fracture of embedded copper conductors in multifunctional composite structures

The fatigue failure mechanisms of copper strips embedded into glass/epoxy were investigated. This combination of materials composes a multifunctional electrical-composite load bearing structure that is essential for systems such as large antennas integrated into aircraft skins. In smart structures applications, bulky and heavy wiring harnesses associated with densely deployed sensors, actuators, and devices can be avoided by using embedded electrical interconnects in a manner analogous to printed circuit boards. Since metals generally exhibit lower fatigue life relative to composites, understanding the failure mechanisms associated with embedded metal conductors is necessary for improving operational life. Specimens having 0.127 mm thick embedded copper strips were used to measure fatigue life as a function of copper strain amplitude. Fracture of the conductor was observed for loading below 75% of the composite ultimate strength, without failure of the composite. The fracture surface morphology was composed of a combination of fatigue crack growth and ductile fracture, with a higher percentage of the latter existing for greater load amplitude. Crack growth in the copper was found to be strongly coupled with debonding between the copper and composite. Prevention of debonding directly influences the fatigue life of the embedded copper strip, much in the same way as composite patches retard crack growth in repaired metal structures.     

Reinforcing an aluminum/GFRP co-cured single lap joint using inter-adherend fiber

Methods to increase the strength of co-cured joints are highly sought after for metal/composite hybrid structures. The present study proposes a reinforcing method for aluminum/glass fiber-reinforced polymer co-cured composites using inter-adherend (IA) fiber that penetrates into the composite and holes in the metal adherend. The IA fiber performs as a bridge and suppresses crack propagation in the lap joints. Static and fatigue tensile tests were performed, and the displacement to failure and ultimate static strength were found to be significantly increased using the IA fiber without a decrease in the fatigue performance. The optimal tension force to the IA fiber realizes higher static tensile strength with lower scatter.     

含脱胶缺陷复合材料L形接头拉脱强度实验研究

为考察脱胶缺陷对整体化结构在面外拉伸载荷下承载能力的影响, 实验研究了脱胶形状、间距、位置和尺寸对L形接头拉脱强度的影响规律, 定量评估了脱胶对L形接头拉脱强度的影响程度, 提出了脱胶缺陷对L形接头拉脱强度影响的定量表征参数。结果表明, L形接头的拉脱强度对脱胶形状、脱胶间距的变化不敏感, 对脱胶位置和脱胶尺寸的变化较为敏感; 位于填充区所在胶接面区域的脱胶对L形接头拉脱强度影响最大; 随着脱胶尺寸特别是填充区所在胶接面脱胶尺寸的增大, 拉脱强度显著降低。     

A robust numerical approach for the simulation of skin–stringer debonding growth in stiffened composite panels under compression

In this paper, a numerical study on skin–stringer debonding growth in stiffened composite panels has been carried out. A novel numerical methodology is proposed here to investigate the compressive behaviour of a stiffened composite panel in the presence of skin–stringer partial separation. The novel numerical methodology, able to overcome the mesh size and time increment dependency of the standard Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT), is an evolution of a previously developed and tested numerical approach for the circular delaminations growth. The enhancements, with respect to the previously developed approach, rely mainly in the capability to deal with the different defect shapes characterising a skin–stringer debonding. The proposed novel methodology has been implemented in a commercial finite element platform and tested over single stiffener composite panels. The effectiveness of the suggested numerical methodology, in predicting the compressive behaviour of stiffened panels with skin stringer debondings, has been preliminary confirmed by comparisons, in terms of load versus applied displacement and debonding size at failure, with literature experimental data and numerical results obtained with the standard VCCT approach.     

Failure analysis of adhesively-bonded skin-to-stiffener joints: Metal–metal vs. composite–metal

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the performance of two adhesively bonded skin-to-stiffener connections: composite stiffener bonded to a Fiber Metal Laminate (FML) skin, representing a hybrid joint, and an Aluminium stiffener bonded to a FML skin, representative for a metal joint. The bonded joints were tested using Stiffener Pull-Off Tests (SPOT), which is a typical set-up used to simulate the structural behavior of full-scale components subject to out-of-plane loading, such as internal pressure of a fuselage or leading edge low pressure zone. In the hybrid joint, the damage initiates at the central noodle of the composite stiffener. Unstable delamination then propagates from the noodle to the tip of the stiffener foot, preferably through the stiffener foot plies (>90% of inter/intra-laminar failure) and, in limited areas, through the adhesive bond line (<10% of cohesive failure). In the metal joint, the failure starts at the tip of the stiffener foot at the adhesive bond line. Unstable debonding then propagates along the stiffeners foot. The complete failure occurs in the adhesive bond line (100% cohesive failure). The loads associated with >90% of inter/intra laminar failure of the composite stiffener (hybrid joint) are 40–60% lower than the ones associated with 100% cohesive failure (metal joint). This research identifies that in order to use the full capacity of adhesively bonded hybrid joints, the adhesion between carbon fibers of the composite laminate, ie intralaminar strength, must be improved. Otherwise, Aluminium stringers are still very competitive.     

Fatigue failure characterisation of resistance-welded thermoplastic composites skin/stringer joints

An experimental investigation characterising the fatigue failure mechanisms of resistance-welded thermoplastic composites skin/stringer joints is presented. Unidirectional (UD) and quasi-isotropic adherends were welded using stainless steel meshes as heating elements. The specimen geometry consisted of a flange laminate, representing a stringer, welded onto a skin laminate. In order to avoid current leakage to the electrically conductive adherends, a ceramic-coated heating element (TiO₂ HE) was used for welding the UD specimens and some of the quasi-isotropic specimens. The fatigue performance of the welded joints was investigated under three-point bending. An indefinite fatigue life was obtained at 40% and 35% of the static damage initiation load for the UD and quasi-isotropic specimens, respectively. The failure mechanisms were documented based on observation of the fatigue cracks initiation and growth. UD specimens failed at the weld interface while quasi-isotropic specimens showed delaminations both in the flange or skin laminates and at the weld interface. The TiO₂ HE did not show any fatigue mechanical performance reduction. However, debonding at the weld interface was shown to occur between the metal mesh wires and the TiO₂ coating instead of between the laminates and the weld.     

Analysis of composite skin/stiffener debounding and failure under uniaxial loading

In this paper, damage mechanisms in the composite bounded skin/stiffener constructions under monotonic tension loading are investigated. The approach uses experiments to detect the failure mechanisms, two and three-dimensional stress analysis to determine the location of first matrix cracking and computational fracture mechanics to investigate the potential for cracks and delamination growth. The laminates strength and damage mechanisms obtained from both experimental and finite elements analysis are presented for several laminates lay-up configurations. Observations on the performed experiments show matrix crack initiation and propagation in the skin and near the flange tip, causing the flange to almost fully debounded from the skin in some cases, interlaminar debounding and fiber breakage up to the failure of the components. The finite elements analysis is also show that the matrix cracks are initiated in the first skin layer for most of the cases. With increasing the applied load the matrix cracks are propagated through the thickness to reach the next layer and causes delamination between the two layers. With increasing the applied load this delamination is propagated up to the occurrence of unstable delamination growth or the first fiber breakage known as the final failure of the component. The obtained experimental failure loads are compared with those calculated by the finite elements analysis.     

Analysis of Mode I and Mode II Crack Growth Arrest Mechanism with Z-Fibre Pins in Composite Laminated Joint

This paper presents the numerical study of the mode I and mode II interlaminar crack growth arrest in hybrid laminated curved composite stiffened joint with Z-fibre reinforcement. A FE model of hybrid laminated skin-stiffener joint reinforced with Z-pins is developed to investigate the effect of Z- fibre pins on mode I and mode II crack growth where the delamination is embedded inbetween the skin and stiffener interface. A finite element model was developed using S4R element of a 4-node doubly curved thick shell elements to model the composite laminates and non linear interface elements to simulate the reinforcements. The numerical analyses revealed that Z-fibre pinning were effective in suppressing the delamination growth when propagated due to applied loads. Therefore, the Z-fibre technique effectively improves the crack growth resistance and hence arrests or delays crack growth extension.     

Compressive response of Z-pinned woven glass fiber textile composite laminates: Experiments

In the first of this two part sequel, experimental results pertaining to the compressive response and failure of Z-pinned S-Glass fiber, plain-weave laminated composites are presented. These experiments are motivated by a need to understand the effect of Z-pinning on the strength and stiffness of these composites. A series of experiments are performed based upon density of the Z-pins and the diameter of the Z-pins. It is concluded that the damage zone around a Z-pin plays an important role in influencing the stiffness and strength of the Z-pin composite. In part 2 of this sequel, a 3D finite element (FE) based numerical model (based upon the composite microstructure acquired from scanning electron micrograph-SEM images) are used to capture details of the observed failure mechanisms and to provide predictions of the stiffness and strength of the composite.     

Temperature-dependent monotonic and fatigue bending strengths of adhesively bonded aluminum honeycomb sandwich beams

The monotonic and fatigue strengths of adhesively bonded aluminum honeycomb sandwich beams subjected to four-point bending were investigated at temperatures ranging from −25 to 75 °C. Experimental results showed that the ultimate loads in the monotonic tests and fatigue strengths in the fatigue tests decrease as temperature increases, and the failure mode changes from local indentation to debonding at the skin/core interfaces. An analytical procedure based on the temperature-dependent monotonic strengths of face/core materials and simple adhesively bonded specimens were used and accurately predicted the ultimate applied loads in the monotonic tests by comparing the theoretical limit loads corresponding to several failure modes, i.e., face failure, local indentation, core shear failure, and face/core debonding modes. Furthermore, by modifying the monotonic analytical procedure and incorporating the temperature-dependent S–N curves of the face/core materials and the simple adhesively bonded specimens, the fatigue life of the sandwich beams could be predicted by comparing the estimated fatigue lives corresponding to various failure modes. Comparing the evaluated ultimate loads and fatigue lives with the observed data confirmed that the good prediction performance was obtained both in the monotonic and fatigue analyses.     

Analysis of the fracture behaviour of a stitched single-lap joint

The effect of stitching on the fracture response of single-lap composite joints was studied by a combined experimental and numerical analysis. Unstitched and Kevlar stitched joints were tested under static and fatigue loading to characterize damage progression and failure modes; a three-dimensional finite element analysis was carried out to evaluate the influence of stitches on strain energy release rates as a function of damage and to identify the role of various stitching parameters on the fracture behaviour of joints.It was observed that the failure of the joints occurs as a consequence of the propagation of delamination at the interface between the adherends; the propagation is stable under fatigue loads and unstable under static loads. Stitching does not improve the static strength of joints but significantly prolongs the duration of the crack propagation phase under fatigue loading.The results of finite element modelling indicate that the incorporation of stitches reduce G_I to zero after the delamination front passes the stitch line, but it is not effective in reducing mode II energy release rate. They also show that strain energy release rates are not greatly affected by the length of stitch-laminate debonding, which, conversely, does influence stitch tensioning. Moreover, 3D analysis reveals that stitches become less efficient in reducing the crack driving force with increasing stitching steps.