In situ synchrotron X-ray study of bainite transformation kinetics in a low-carbon Si-containing steel

The bainite transformation in a low-carbon Si-containing steel has been studied in situ by synchrotron X-rays. While the austenite is homogeneous prior to transformation, the carbon distribution becomes nonuniform as bainite plates form. This is because of the different degrees of physical isolation of films and blocks of residual austenite. The method for converting dilatational strain into bainite volume fraction, using lattice strain as a reference, during isothermal transformation was found to overestimate it. The bainitic and martensitic ferrite did not exhibit a tetragonal unit cell due to the low-carbon content of the steel and the high transformation temperature.     

Effect of austenite grain size on isothermal bainite transformation in low carbon microalloyed steel

Abstract

The effect of austenite grain size on isothermal bainite transformation in a low carbon microalloyed steel was studied by means of optical microscopy, SEM and TEM. Two widely varying austenite grain sizes, a fine average grain size (～20 μm) and a coarse average grain size (～260 μm), were obtained by different maximum heating temperatures. The results showed that the morphology of isothermal microstructure changes from bainite without carbide precipitation to bainitic ferrite with a decrease in holding temperature. Coarse austenite grain can retard the kinetics of bainite transformation and increase the incubation time of bainite transformation by reducing the number of nucleation site, but it does not influence the nose temperature of the C curve of bainite start transformation, which is ～534°C.     

The Formation of Carbide-Free Bainite in High-Carbon High-Silicon Steel under Isothermal Conditions

It is shown that a carbide-free bainite structure can be formed in high-carbon steel of the Fe–Si–Mn–Cr–V system using a traditional furnace facility. The structural aspects of bainitic transformation developing under isothermal conditions at 300°C have been studied by the methods of X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Orientation relationships between crystalline lattices of γ and α phases have been established. A superequilibrium carbon concentration in the bainite α phase has been determined.     

The effect of hydrogen on the bainite transformation

The effect of hydrogen on the upper bainite transformation in two silicon containing steels has been investigated. For comparison, isothermal transformation at the same temperature has also been performed in a helium atmosphere. In both Fe-0.2C-3Mn-2Si and Fe-0.4C-4Ni-2Si (nominal wt %) alloys it was discovered that the bainite reaction proceeds further towards completion when the transformation is carried out in a hydrogen atmosphere. This can result in the reduction or elimination of the martensite phase which forms from residual austenite upon quenching to room temperature. The resultant microstructure of specimens heat treated in hydrogen was a fine aggregate of upper bainitic ferrite and interlath retained austenite. This effect is discussed in terms of hydrogen interactions in the lattice undergoing bainite transformation via a displacive mechanism. Additionally, it is found that the stability of the retained austenite in the final bainitic microstructure is not markedly influenced by hydrogen.     

Carbon partitioning during bainite transformation in low alloy steels

Abstract

Carbon partitioning in untransformed austenite during bainite transformation has been studied using high speed dilatometry. It was found that in specimens partially transformed to bainite, during subsequent quenching to ambient temperature two martensite start temperatures M _s can be registered. Because M _s depends directly on a carbon content in austenite, the obtained results may indicate that the carbon concentration trapped in films of austenite between parallel subunits of bainitic ferrite is much larger than in the blocks of austenite. It would indicate the necessity of a substantial modification of bainite and martensite regions on the time–temperature–transformation (continuous cooling) diagrams.     

Retained austenite stabilisation in low carbon high silicon steel during isothermal holding

We elucidate here the role of isothermal hold temperature of 300–500°C after intercritical annealing at 760°C on bainitic transformation and in governing the stabilisation of retained austenite in a 0.23C-1.35Si-1.82Mn steel. A critical analysis was attempted to explain the observations using displacive mechanism of bainite formation in the attempt to endeavour to understand the kinetics of bainitic transformation during isothermal holding. The model predicted that carbon enrichment in austenite was of particular significance in governing the stability of retained austenite. Thus, through the contribution of transformation induced plasticity effect of retained austenite, high tensile strength (964?MPa) and excellent ductility (uniform elongation of 24.5% and total elongation of 32%) was obtained on isothermal holding at 400°C.     

Effect of austenite deformation on crystallographic texture during transformations in microalloyed bainitic steel

Abstract

The evolution of the texture of ferrite as a function of the coiling temperature has been studied in a hot rolled Nb alloyed CMnMoCrB complex phase steel by means of electron backscatter diffraction. Coiling that steel at 720 ° C led to ferrite and pearlite, and coiling at 550 ° C produced a bainite-martensite microstructure. The presence of residual austenite in the steels coiled at 680 and 550 ° C allowed for texture measurements in γ. Analyses of texture gave fundamental information on the decomposition of γ in both the recrystallised state and the deformed state. It was found that austenite, initially deformed below the non-recrystallisation temperature T_nr, recrystallised statically d partially during the γ α and the γ ^d α _b transformations. In the specimen coiled at 680 ° C, primary ferrite and bainite could be distinguished based on the confidence indexof the diffraction pattern. A clear variant selection was observed for the γ ^d α _b transformation, as arotation of ? ₁ = 30 ° occurred inthe austenite between the ferrite and the bainite formations. The bainite was found to result mainly from the decomposition of the brass {110} 〈 112 〉 and Goss {110} 〈 001 〉 orientations of deformed austenite. The residual austenite was found to be recrystallised γ γ austenite with the cube{001} 〈 100 〉 orientation. Coiling simulations were performed in a dilatometer starting from different austenite grains sizes and deformation states. In the most deformed specimens, the deformation state of the austenite and the combined effects between the different alloying elements presentin the steel were responsible for a solute drag like effect.     

Effects of simulated on line accelerated cooling processing on transformation temperatures and microstructure in microalloyed steels Part 2—Plate processing

The effects of three on line accelerated cooling parameters (accelerated cooling start temperature T_A, cooling rate ?, and cooling interrupt temperature T₁) on transformation temperatures and microstructure in a low carbon microalloyed plate steel were studied by laboratory simulations in a quench deformation dilatometer. Varying the on line accelerated cooling parameters changes the austenite condition and transformation path. In general, the transformation path shifts from polygonal ferrite towards bainite with increasing T_A, increasing ?, and decreasing T₁. There is also a corresponding refinement in the microstructure and increase in hardness. In comparison with the laboratory thermomechanical processing treatments, the multipass industrial rolling schedule produces a much more heavily deformed austenite structure than laboratory thermomechanical processing treatments, which would favour high transformation temperatures, fine polygonal ferrite microstructure, and lower hardness.

MST/3425     

Microstructural examination of two experimental high-strength bainitic low-alloy steels containing silicon

Abstract

A detailed microstructural characterization of two silicon-containing low-alloy steels, Fe–0·2C–2Si–3Mn and Fe–0·4C–2Si–4Ni (nominal wt-%), isothermally transformed in the bainitic temperature range (~ 400–250°C), has been carried out using principally electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and dilatometry. Upper bainite in these silicon-containing steels consists of bainitic ferrite laths and interwoven thin films of retained austenite instead of cementite. Coarser granular regions of retained austenite may also be obtained. The bainitic ferrite laths (or plates) in lower bainitic structures contain intralath carbides, but the interlath morphology of retained austenite still occurs. The variations in these microstructures with isothermal transformation temperature, and the thermal stability of the retained austenite phase is described and discussed.

MST/526     

Effect of bainitic transformation on mechanical properties of 0.6C-Si-Mn steel

The mechanical properties of 0.6C-Si-Mn steel transformed isothermally in the bainitic temperature region (593 and 648 K) were investigated. The mechanical properties of the steels were improved with increasing bainite and retained austenite and the corresponding decrease in martensite. Marked benefits of the mechanical properties were obtained for the steels containing the maximum content of retained austenite in the bainite matrix, independent of transformation temperature. For isothermal transformation at 593 K, the 0.2% yield stress, _y, ultimate tensile stress, _u, and notch tensile stress (NTS) were improved significantly, while the advantage of the per cent elongation and Charpy 2 mm V-notch (CVN) impact energy was relatively small. As a result of isothermal transformation at 648 K, the per cent elongation and CVN impact energy were dramatically improved, while the superiority of _y, _u and NTS was not much greater than isothermal transformation at 593 K. Compared to 0.6C steels transformed isothermally at the same temperatures, in which little appreciable retained austenite was found, the isothermally transformed steels having a microstructure consisting of bainite and retained austenite improved the mechanical properties remarkably. These results are described and discussed.     

Phase transformations during the decomposition of austenite below Ms in a low-carbon steel

The purpose of this study is to investigate and understand the phase transformations during the decomposition of austenite, which occurs during isothermal treatments below the martensite start temperature (M_s) in a low-carbon steel. Isothermal holding treatments after rapid cooling to various temperatures (forming a controlled volume fraction of initial martensite) were carried out in a dilatometer. Results obtained by dilatometry, microstructural characterization and hardness were analyzed. This combination of results shows that the microstructures formed below the M_s temperature are mainly bainitic, mixed with tempered martensite. The kinetics of isothermal bainite formation was described by a nucleation-based transformation model. The complex competition and interactions between their transformation mechanisms during the isothermal holding at different temperature regimes are discussed.     

Alloy optimisation of bainitic steel for large plastic mould

Based on the phase transformation theories, especially the T₀ concept of bainite transformation, alloy optimisation of bainitic steel with carbides has been carried out aiming at the produce of plastic mould with large cross-section. The effect of manganese and silicon on proeutectoid ferrite and bainite transformation is explored by dilatometric analysis, XRD and different microscopy techniques. The results show that after the alloy optimisation, the transformation of proeutectoid ferrite is suppressed and when the cooling rate is lower than 0·1°C?s^??1, the new lower bainite transformation appears by decreasing carbon capacity of austenite and promoting carbide precipitation. Industrial production proves that the optimised alloy SDP1 can meet the demand for the plastic mould with the thickness of 1050?mm.     

Carbon composition and temperature dependence of relative change in length during isothermal decomposition of Fe–C austenite

Abstract

The carbon composition and temperature dependence of the relative change in length during isothermal decompos ition of Fe–C austenite has been modelled. Decomposition of austenite above and below the A₁ temperature has been considered, as well as a two-step procedure where a specimen decomposes into ferrite and carbon enriched austenite at a temperature above A₁ and is subsequently subjected to transformation below A₁ leading to ferrite and cementite. Analytical expressions have been given for the relative change in length as a function of carbon composition, isothermal decomposition temperature, and degree of transformation. Predicted changes in length have been compared with experimental results.     

Acoustic emission monitoring of bainitic and martensitic transformation in medium carbon steel during continuous cooling

Abstract

This paper concerns acoustic emission (AE) measurements during continuous cooling of steel C45 using a Gleeble 1500 thermomechanical simulator. After austenising at a certain temperature, the studied specimen was cooled down and the root mean square (RMS) value of the continuous AE signal was measured. During cooling two distinct peaks in the RMS data were observed at temperatures of 200-300°C and 500-600°C, which have been attributed to martensite and bainite formation respectively. The observed bainite peak strongly indicated that the mechanism of bainite growth is displacive. The AE monitoring of bainite and martensite formation was supported by dilatation measurements, which were performed simultaneously. The effect of the austenite grain size on the evolution of the bainitic and martensitic transformation was studied by varying the austenising temperature T _a. It was found that upon lowering T _a, i.e. with decreasing austenite grain size, the bainite peak increases while the martensite peak decreases.     

Effect of austenisation temperature on bainite transformation below martensite starting temperature

Effects of austenisation temperature on martensite and bainite transformation behaviour, microstructure, and mechanical properties of a bainitic steel austempered below martensite starting temperature were investigated in this study. Results show that the amount of athermal martensite gradually increased with the increase of austenisation temperature, whereas the amounts of bainite and retained austenite initially increased and then decreased, resulting in the trend of the first increase and then decrease in the product of tensile strength and elongation. In addition, the transformation rate of isothermal bainite after athermal martensite formation revealed a trend of deceleration and then acceleration with austenisation temperature at the beginning period. Moreover, the size of bainite plates decreased first and then increased with austenisation temperature.     

Critical ausforming temperature to promote isothermal bainitic transformation in prior-deformed austenite

The effects of deformation temperature on phase transformation and microstructure in nanostructured bainite steel were studied. The results indicate that the deformed austenite with a strain of 0.3 at 300°C presents accelerated kinetics of bainitic transformation. However, the amount of bainite in ausformed austenite then reduces with the increase in deformation temperature. A critical deformation temperature, determining whether the bainitic transformation can be promoted, was found in deformed austenite. In addition, the thickness of bainite plate in deformed austenite reduces with the decrease in ausforming temperature. The adjacent bainite ferrite plates grow up interactively, and the intersection angle is about 60–73°. A lower ausforming temperature contributes to a more serious cross-growth phenomenon of bainite plates.     

Carbide-free bainite in medium carbon steel

Heat-treatment processes to obtain carbide-free upper bainite, low bainite and low-temperature bainite in the 34MnSiCrAlNiMo medium-carbon steel were explored. Results show that in the steel bainite transformation mainly goes through three stages: short incubation, explosive nucleation and slow growth. When transformation temperature, T > Ms + 75 °C, upper bainite consisted of catenary bainitic ferrite and blocky retained austenite is obtained in the steel. When Ms + 10 °C < T < Ms + 75 °C, lower bainite is the main morphology composed of lath-like bainitic ferrite and flake-like retained austenite. When T < Ms + 10 °C, the lower bainite, also known as low-temperature bainite, is obtained, which contains much thinner lath-like bainitic ferrite and film-like retained austenite. Mechanical testing results show that the lower the transformation temperature is, the better comprehensive performance is. The low-temperature bainite has the very high tensile strength and impact toughness simultaneously. The lower bainite has lower tensile strength and higher impact toughness. The upper bainite has higher tensile strength and lower impact toughness. The big difference of the mechanical performance between these kinds of bainite is mainly caused by interface morphology, size, and phase interface structure of the bainitic ferrite and the retained austenite. Additionally, when the bainite transformation temperature is decreased, the high-angle misorientation fraction in packets of bainite ferrite plates is increased. High-angle misorientation between phase interfaces can prevent crack propagation, and thus improves impact toughness.     

Effect of dissolution and precipitation of Nb on the formation of acicular ferrite/bainite ferrite in low-carbon HSLA steels

Effect of dissolution and precipitation of Nb on the phase transformation during cooling was investigated. It is firstly recognized that either the formation of acicular ferrite or the separation of bainite ferrite could be adjusted by the preparation of the steel specimens with different amounts of solute Nb and Nb-precipitates in austenite (isothermally holding at 850 °C for different durations). An increase in isothermal duration at 850 °C would spawn more Nb(CN) precipitates, leading to a microstructural evolution from bainite ferrite to acicular ferrite/bainite ferrite dual phase, and eventually to acicular ferrite in the final microstructure. This could be explained by the solution of Nb in the austenite, due to the solute dragging effect of Nb, can decrease the A_r3 temperature and promote the formation of bainite ferrite, while the precipitation of NbC can increase the A_r3 temperature and promote the formation of acicular ferrite by increasing the nucleation sites of acicular ferrite. Thus, the properties of acicular ferrite/bainite ferrite dual phase steel can generally be improved by appropriately controlling the state of Nb (Nb(CN) as precipitates and Nb in solution) in the austenite before cooling, which provides a new approach to the modification of acicular ferrite/bainite ferrite ratio.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of C–Si–Mn(–Nb) TRIP steels after simulated thermomechanical processing

Abstract

Continuous and discontinuous cooling tests were performed using a quench deformation dilatometer to develop a comprehensive understanding of the structural and kinetic aspects of the bainite transformation in low carbon TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) steels as a function of thermomechanical processing and composition. Deformation in the unrecrystallised austenite region refined the ferrite grain size and increased the ferrite and bainite transformation temperatures for cooling rates from 10 to 90 K s^-1. The influence of niobium on the transformation kinetics was also investigated. Niobium increases the ferrite start transformation temperature, refines the ferrite microstructure, and stimulates the formation of acicular ferrite. The effect of the bainite isothermal transformation temperature on the final microstructure of steels with and without a small addition of niobium was studied. Niobium promotes the formation of stable retained austenite, which influences the mechanical properties of TRIP steels. The optimum mechanical properties were obtained after isothermal holding at 400°C in the niobium steel containing the maximum volume fraction of retained austenite with acicular ferrite as the predominant second phase.     

The effects of Nb and Mo addition on transformation and properties in low carbon bainitic steels

Four low carbon bainite steels were designed to investigate the effects of Mo and Nb addition on bainitic transformation, microstructures and properties by metallographic method and dilatometry. The results show that single Nb addition retards bainitic transformation in low carbon bainite steels, although it can improve strength by refining microstructures. Moreover, Mo addition is effective to improve the strength of low carbon bainite steel by promoting bainitic transformation and single Mo addition has a better strengthening effect than single Nb addition. Further, in Mo bearing steel, Nb addition refines bainite sheaves, but meanwhile hinders bainitic transformation because of smaller austenite grains. Consequently, the composite strengthening effect of Mo and Nb addition has little improvement compared with individual addition of Mo in low carbon bainite steels.