Three-dimensional analysis for liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic storage tank with heat pipe–pump system

This paper presents a study on fluid flow and heat transfer of liquid hydrogen in a zero boil-off cryogenic storage tank in a microgravity environment. The storage tank is equipped with an active cooling system consisting of a heat pipe and a pump–nozzle unit. The pump collects cryogen at its inlet and discharges it through its nozzle onto the evaporator section of the heat pipe in order to prevent the cryogen from boiling off due to the heat leaking through the tank wall from the surroundings. A three-dimensional (3-D) finite element model is employed in a set of numerical simulations to solve for velocity and temperature fields of liquid hydrogen in steady state. Complex structures of 3-D velocity and temperature distributions determined from the model are presented. Simulations with an axisymmetric model were also performed for comparison. Parametric study results from both models predict that as the speed of the cryogenic fluid discharged from the nozzle increases, the mean or bulk cryogenic fluid speed increases linearly and the maximum temperature within the cryogenic fluid decreases.     

Cryogenic system design of the next generation infrared space telescope SPICA

The Japanese infrared space telescope SPICA mission, following the successful Akari mission, has been studied at the concept design phase in international collaboration with ESA under the framework of the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015-2025. The SPICA spacecraft is to be launched in 2018 and transferred into a halo orbit around the Sun-Earth L2 to obtain a stable thermal environment where the IR space telescope’s large mirror of 3 m-class in diameter can be cooled to <5.5 K with mechanical coolers and effective radiative cooling with no use of stored cryogen. The SPICA’s large and cold telescope is expected to provide unprecedented scientific observation optimized for mid-IR and far-IR astronomy with ultra-high sensitivity and excellent spatial resolution during a nominal mission life of 3 years (goal 5 years). Thermal and structural analyses show that the obtained design of the SPICA cryogenic system satisfies the mission requirement. Mechanical coolers for the 4.5 K stage and the 1.7 K stage, which have been continuously developed, have a sufficient cooling capacity with low power consumption to lift the heat loads from instruments and parasitic heat loads. As a result, it is concluded that the concept design of the SPICA cryogenic system is confirmed for the initial cooling mode after launch and the nominal operation mode.     

A coupled numerical analysis of shield temperatures, heat losses and residual gas pressures in an evacuated super-insulation using thermal and fluid networks: Part II: Unsteady-state conditions (cool-down period)

This paper analyses the cool-down period of a 300 L super-insulated cryogenic storage tank for liquid nitrogen. Storage tank and evacuated shields are the same as described in part I of this paper where stationary states were investigated. The aim of the present paper is to introduce thermal resistance networks as a tool to quantitatively understand and control also unsteady-states like cool-down of super-insulations. Numerical simulations using thermal resistance networks have been performed to determine time dependence of local shield temperatures and heat loss components. Coupling between radiation and solid conduction is investigated under these conditions. Using the numerical results, we have checked an experimental method suggested in the literature to separate heat losses through the insulation from losses through thermal bridges by measurement of unsteady-state evaporation rates. The results of the simulations confirm that it takes the outer shields much longer to reach stationary temperature; cool-down does not proceed uniformly in the super-insulation. Coupling between different heat transfer modes again is obvious. Thermal emissivity is important also during the early phase of cool-down. Using the obtained numerical results, the experimental method to separate heat loss components could only roughly been confirmed for thick metallic foils.     

On conduction-cooling of a high-temperature superconducting cable

Current generation high-temperature superconducting (HTS) power transmission cables use liquid nitrogen as a coolant that circulates along the cable. In this work, the use of axial conduction-cooling in attaining HTS temperatures in transmission lines is proposed. Liquid coolant use is envisioned only at periodic length intervals along the transmission lines, in combination with insulation and copper. The proposed concept is feasible due to the high thermal conductivity of pure copper at cryogenic temperatures. A basic design for the insulated cable is proposed and a detailed numerical simulation of heat transfer in such a cable is carried out for various case studies considering the superconducting materials MgB₂ and BSCCO-2223.     

Analytical and finite element investigations of shear/compression test fixtures

Insulation systems are critical components of the international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER). They must meet the super conducting magnets design requirements, including mechanical strength under combined shear and compressive stresses at cryogenic temperatures. Past cryogenic magnet systems often relied on woven glass/epoxy materials for insulation. An important point is to find a reliable shear/compression test method for these materials. The present work investigates a commonly used shear/compression setup and aims at measuring the reliability of the obtained test results. Therefore, the stress and failure analysis is performed analytically and numerically using the finite element method. The model is based on woven glass fiber reinforced materials which are subjected to combined shear and compressive stresses as well as to thermal loading, that results from cooling from 293 K to the test temperature of 77 K. A short analytical section shows the problems of common failure criteria which are used to describe the interaction of the shear and compression stresses. The numerical—finite element—section is based on three-dimensional linear elastic finite element models under thermo-mechanical loading. The locations of high stress gradients are investigated using an average stress criterion. Three different model geometries (15°, 45°, and 70°) are analyzed and finally compared with respect to their reliability.     

Investigation of helium injection cooling to liquid oxygen under pressurized condition

Sub-cooling of cryogenic propellant by helium injection is one of the most effective methods for suppressing bulk boiling and keeping sub-cooled liquid oxygen before rocket launch. Compared with the helium injection cooling under atmospheric condition, helium injection cooling under pressurized condition has advantage that it can greatly reduce re-warming time of the sub-cooled liquid oxygen. Helium injection cooling under pressurized condition is characterized by cooling of initially sub-cooled cryogenic liquid, which is significantly different from that of the atmospheric condition where liquid oxygen usually exists at saturated condition. In this paper, we discuss the characteristics of helium injection cooling under pressurized condition, with the associated physical understanding of the process. Experimental results are presented along the simulations of variously combined system parameters based on the finite heat transfer and instantaneous diffusion mass transfer model. A non-dimensional parameter for identifying the cooling regime is conceived. The critical values of the non-dimensional parameters and injected helium temperatures are also estimated.     

A review of experimental methods for solid solubility determination in cryogenic systems

Over the past years, there have been a number of serious explosions in air industry, which have resulted in workers injuries and fatalities. At the same time, there has been an increase in the use of air separation products for industrial activities.The quality of air entering an air separation plant is of crucial importance for its safe and reliable operation and the interest in the solubility data of solids in cryogenic liquid solvents is closely connected to the problem of impurities accumulation in the process plant and storage tanks. Such accumulations, especially in liquid oxygen, may cause fouling and blockage in heat exchangers and pipelines and they may eventually cause serious explosions. For this reason the air contaminants composition in liquid oxygen must be determined with great precision.This paper aims at reviewing experimental methods for determining the solubility of solid compounds that may be present in the cryogenic liquefaction processing of air distillation. A review of the literature data on solubility of solids in liquid oxygen and nitrogen is included as well.Emphasis is given to the difficulties in setting-up measuring apparatuses working at extreme conditions, i.e. low compositions and low temperatures.     

Study on the heat transfer of high-vacuum-multilayer-insulation tank after sudden, catastrophic loss of insulating vacuum

One of the worst accidents that may occur in a high-vacuum-multilayer-insulation (HVMLI) cryogenic tank is a sudden, catastrophic loss of insulating vacuum (SCLIV). There is no doubt that the gases leaking into the insulation jacket have some influence on the heat transfer process of it. However, this issue has not been thoroughly studied so far. In this paper, a test rig was built up and experiments were conducted using a SCLIV cryogenic tank and with nitrogen, helium and air as the working medium, respectively. The venting rates of the tank and temperature in the insulation jacket were measured respectively after the three different gases leaking into the jacket. A heat transfer model describing the heat transfer process of a SCLIV tank was also presented. The calculated results using this model were compared against the experimental data. It is found that the heat transfer performance of the HVMLI cryogenic tank after SCLIV is strong relevant to the type of gas leaking into the insulation jacket.     

Gas gap thermal switches using neon or hydrogen and sorption pump

The very low pressure obtained thanks to adsorption phenomenon at low temperature can be used to build cryogenic heat switches, which offer the possibility to make or break thermal contact between two parts of a cryogenic system. The ON (conducting) and OFF (insulating) states of the switch are obtained by varying the gas pressure between two copper blocks separated by a gap of 100 μm. This pressure is controlled by acting upon the temperature of a small sorption pump (activated charcoal) connected to the gap space. For a “high” sorption pump temperature, the gas previously adsorbed in the sorption pump is released to the gap between the two blocks, allowing a good thermal conduction through the gas (ON state). On the opposite, cooling the sorption pump allows a very good vacuum between the copper blocks, which efficiently break the thermal contact (OFF state). Experimental thermal characteristics (Conductance in the ON and OFF state, ON-OFF switching temperature) of such a “Gas Gap Heat Switch” are described using hydrogen or neon as exchange gas and are compared with theoretical calculations.     

A coupled numerical analysis of shield temperatures, heat losses and residual gas pressures in an evacuated super-insulation using thermal and fluid networks: Part III: Unsteady-state conditions (evacuation period)

This paper analyses the evacuation period of a 300 L super-insulated cryogenic storage tank for liquid nitrogen. Storage tank and radiation shields are the same as in part I of this paper. The present analysis extends application of stationary fluid networks to unsteady-states to determine local, residual gas pressures between shields and the evacuation time of a multilayer super-insulation. Parameter tests comprise magnitude of desorption from radiation shields, spacers and container walls and their influence on length of the evacuation period. Calculation of the integrals over time-dependent desorption rates roughly confirms weight losses of radiation shields obtained after heating and out-gassing the materials, as reported in the literature. After flooding the insulation space with dry N₂-gas, the evacuation time can enormously be reduced, from 72 to 4 h, to obtain a residual gas pressure of 0.01 Pa in-between shields of this storage tank. Permeation of nitrogen through container walls is of no importance for residual gas pressures. The simulations finally compare freezing H₂O-layers adsorbed on shields, spacers and container walls with flooding of the materials.     

Development of a miniature cryogenic fluid circuit and a cryogenic micropump

This article presents the development of a miniaturized cryogenic fluid circuit for distributed cooling of low-temperature tracking detectors in high-energy physics (HEP). The heart of the circuit is a prototype cryogenic micropump. This volumetric pump is compatible with cooling powers of about 10-100 W, and capable of producing pressure heads of up to around 0.3 MPa. Besides detector and electronics cooling in HEP, potential applications are found in the field of superconductor technology.     

Design of a high power heater for the cryogenic hydrogen system at J-PARC

The cryogenic hydrogen system, which provides the supercritical hydrogen with the pressure of 1.5 MPa and the temperature of around 20 K, adopts to moderate and convert high-energy neutrons into cold neutrons for neutron scattering experiments in the J-PARC. Large pressure fluctuation caused by the intense pulsed-proton-beam injection and trip should be mitigated by both an active heater control and a passive accumulator control. A compact high power heater should be required to compensate the heat load corresponding to the nuclear heating while the proton beam stopping. In this study, the high power heater used in the cryogenic hydrogen was designed and a numerical analysis was performed. Then the results confirmed that the heater could apply kW-order heat powers to supercritical hydrogen without any disturbance.     

不同种类破空气体对高真空多层绝热低温容器真空丧失后传热的影响

通过实验,分别利用氮气、空气、氧气和氦气作为破空气体,对高真空多层绝热低温容器在真空完全丧失后的漏热进行了研究。结果表明,多层绝热结构对于绝热真空完全丧失后的低温容器能够起到一定的保护作用,初始和最终漏热和渗入到绝热真空夹层中气体的性质密切相关。     

Wrapped multilayer insulation design and testing

New vehicles need improved cryogenic propellant storage and transfer capabilities for long duration missions. Multilayer insulation (MLI) for cryogenic propellant feedlines is much less effective than MLI tank insulation, with heat leak into spiral wrapped MLI on pipes 3–10 times higher than conventional tank MLI. Better insulation for cryogenic feed lines is an important enabling technology that could help NASA reach cryogenic propellant storage and transfer requirements. Improved insulation for Ground Support Equipment could reduce cryogen losses during launch vehicle loading. Wrapped-MLI (WMLI) is a high performance multilayer insulation using innovative discrete spacer technology specifically designed for cryogenic transfer lines and Vacuum Jacketed Pipe (VJP) to reduce heat flux.The poor performance of traditional MLI wrapped on feed lines is due in part to compression of the MLI layers, with increased interlayer contact and heat conduction. WMLI uses discrete spacers that maintain precise layer spacing, with a unique design to reduce heat leak. A Triple Orthogonal Disk spacer was engineered to minimize contact area/length ratio and reduce solid heat conduction for use in concentric MLI configurations.A new insulation, WMLI, was developed and tested. Novel polymer spacers were designed, analyzed and fabricated; different installation techniques were examined; and rapid prototype nested shell components to speed installation on real world piping were designed and tested. Prototypes were installed on tubing set test fixtures and heat flux measured via calorimetry. WMLI offered superior performance to traditional MLI installed on cryogenic pipe, with 2.2 W/m² heat flux compared to 26.6 W/m² for traditional spiral wrapped MLI (5 layers, 77–295 K). WMLI as inner insulation in VJP can offer heat leaks as low as 0.09 W/m, compared to industry standard products with 0.31 W/m. WMLI could enable improved spacecraft cryogenic feedlines and industrial hot/cold transfer lines.     

Experimental tests and modeling of the optimal orifice size for a closed cycle He sorption refrigerator

Closed cycle ⁴He sorption refrigerators are an increasingly popular choice for remote cryogenic operations. The presence of a superfluid film on the inner walls of the evaporation pot limits their performance. We present a simple model of the gas, film, and heat flow in a ⁴He sorption refrigerator, taking into account the effects of an orifice to limit superfluid film flow. The model serves as a useful guideline for optimizing cryogenic performance. We also present a diagram of hold time vs. steady state temperature as a function of the radius of the orifice and compare the model to measurements.     

Equipment using a “static-analytic” method for solubility measurements in potentially hazardous binary mixtures under cryogenic temperatures

A new apparatus designed to study, at cryogenic temperatures, thermodynamic equilibria of potentially explosive binary systems such as hydrocarbon-oxygen mixtures is described herein. This equipment has an equilibrium cell which was especially designed to minimize hazards while allowing accurate phase equilibrium measurements. Reliability of results, obtained with this equipment has been verified by working on the nitrogen-propane system, for which data are already available in literature, over a large range of compositions and at various temperatures. Four isothermal curves describing liquid phase compositions at 109.98, 113.77, 119.75 and 125.63 K have been determined. Our experimental data are represented within 2% in compositions and in pressures through the Peng-Robinson equation of state implying Mathias-Copeman alpha function and Huron-Vidal mixing rule. Comparisons to literature allow pointing out: good agreement is observed with Kremer and Knapp data (1983) while the three sets of Poon and Lu data (1974) presenting systematic positive deviation are consequently judged as suspicious.     

低温容器隔热结构的分析

讨论了在干冰温度以下工作的低温容器的隔热,提出了双层隔热结构型式。用热阻分析的方法对隔热材料不出现冷缩、外壳不出现凝露的温度条件进行分析,导出了两种隔热材料的厚度关系、隔热结构最小热阻和限定单位漏热量时热阻的计算式。     

Development of No-Vent™ liquid hydrogen storage system for space applications

A number of technological advances required to store and maintain normal-boiling-point and densified cryogenic liquids, including liquid hydrogen, under zero boil-off conditions in-space, for long periods of time, have been developed. These technologies include (1) thermally optimized compact cryogen storage systems that reduce environmental heat leak to the lowest-temperature cryogen, which minimizes cryocooler size and input power, and (2) actively-cooled shields that surround the storage systems and intercept heat leak. The processes and tools used to develop these technologies are discussed. A zero boil-off liquid hydrogen storage system technology demonstrator for validating the actively-cooled shield technology is presented.     

低温容器的绝热性能指标及其估算

提出考核低温容器绝热性能的第二种指标及其计算方法，并用平板公式替代圆筒壁公式进行导热计算的误差分析。     

低温容器在水蒸气膜态凝结前后的绝热效果分析

绝热失效严重影响了低温容器的经济和安全运行。膜态凝结的出现是绝热失效最直接的表现。提出了用低温容器表面温度与空气露点温度的比较来判别低温容器的绝热是否失效的方法。理论上,分析了低温容器表面水蒸气膜态凝结出现前后的换热机理。在一个高真空多层绝热低温容器上进行了实验,测量并分析了水蒸气膜态凝结前后低温容器表面温度和液氮蒸发速度的变化。理论分析和实验均验证该方法对于判别绝热效果的有效性和可行性。