Effect of cast and extruded stock on grain structure of EN AW 6082 alloy forgings

Abstract

There has been a rapid increase in the use of aluminium forgings in the automotive industry, where weight savings is a critical requirement for reduced fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Extruded bar is the typical forging stock particularly in the manufacture of suspension components. There has been a great interest to replace the extruded forging stock with cast billets of the same diameter. The casting and extrusion routes for the manufacture of EN AW 6082 alloy forging stock were compared in the present work. The control arm produced via forging of the cast stock offers a very uniform grain structure and much superior surface quality with respect to its counterpart produced by the forging of the extruded stock owing to a much smaller grain structure at the surface of the forged component after the T6 heat treatment.     

Al-Cu-Mg-Zn超硬铝合金盘类构件塑性变形性能及锻造成形工艺的研究

目的 为了有效改善Al-Cu-Mg-Zn超硬铝合金盘类锻造构件成形精度和力学性能.方法 通过对代号7A04的Al-Cu-Mg-Zn系超硬铝合金进行热压缩实验,分析其流变行为;通过应力-应变数据,建立本构方程及热加工图.将构建的7A04超硬铝合金材料模型导入有限元分析软件中,同时对锻件成形过程进行仿真模拟并优化.结果 获得了基于Arrhenius模型的流变应力本构方程;确定了7A04超硬铝合金最适宜的加工区域,为后续的仿真模拟提供指导;基于7A04超硬铝合金盘类构件锻造成形有限元仿真模拟分析结果,获得了变形均匀锻件的最优方案.结论 通过全尺寸锻造生产实验对模拟分析结果进行验证,获得了变形均匀且无锻造工艺缺陷的7A04超硬铝合金盘类构件.     

Magnesium alloy defectology AZ91D high‐pressure die cast and influence on the fatigue behaviour

The fatigue results of a high‐pressure die cast of AZ91D magnesium alloy revealed the presence of different types of casting defects, which account for the large scattering in the number of cycles until failure. In this paper, this magnesium alloy has been analysed, and in an effort to reproduce the same surface and material conditions exhibited in automotive service components, the fatigue test samples were manufactured using a die that employs the same casting process and equipment. To examine the fracture surface of all the fatigue tests, a scanning electron microscope was used, and the source of the failure, so as to relate fatigue life with casting defect type, was identified. Five casting defect types that influence the fatigue behaviour were observed and classified: (a) isolated pores (blowholes), (b) micro‐porosity areas, (c) circular shrinkage cavities associated with the contraction and geometry of the casted specimen, (d) surface burrs associated with the die‐casting mould and (e) the presence of oxides or inclusions.     

Verschleißreduzierung an Matrizen für das Präzisionsschmieden von Zahnrädern durch Mehrlagenhartstoffbeschichtung (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC)

Wear reduction on dies for precision forging of gear wheels by means of multi‐layer coating (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC) Due to high thermal, mechanical and tribological loads the tool life quantity of hot forging dies compared to other manufacturing processes is relatively low. Depending on the number of forged parts the mentioned loads lead to different failure causes of the dies. In this connection wear is the main failure cause of hot forging dies. Especially in the precision forging process of gear wheels with its exacting tolerances the tool life quantity is low, which leads to often interruptions of the production process. Because wear concentrates on the near‐surface die areas, these problems can be reduced by increasing the wear resistance of these areas by the Duplex PACVD‐Method, which means nitriding and multi‐layer coating (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC).     

Mechanical behavior of cast and forged magnesium alloys and their microstructures

Effects of manufacturing processes on microstructure and mechanical properties of magnesium alloys AM60 and AZ31B were investigated. The magnesium alloy AM60 was produced by high-pressure die cast (HPDC) with two different casting processors but AZ31B was produced by forging. Casting defects were investigated with SEM observations for the specimens obtained from the two casting processors. The fatigue tests were conducted by load control according to ASTM E466 standard procedure with zero to max loading. The failed surfaces of the specimens were also observed by using SEM. The microstructural analyses were conducted for the specimens obtained from the casting and forging processors. Micro-hardness values in the cross-section of a forged specimen were relatively consistent compared to those of cast specimens. From this study, it was clearly observed that the production methods affect to the microstructures and mechanical behavior of the magnesium alloys.     

Production and mechanical properties of SiC<Subscript>p</Subscript> particle-reinforced 2618 aluminum alloy composites

In this study, 2618 aluminum alloy metal matrix composites (MMCs) reinforced with two different sizes and weight fractions of SiC_p particles upto 10% weight were fabricated by stir cast method and subsequent forging operation. The effects of SiC_p particle content and size of the particles on the mechanical properties of the composites such as hardness, tensile strength, hot tensile strength (at 120 °C), and impact strength were investigated. The density measurements showed that the samples contained little porosity with increasing weight fraction. Optical microscopic observations of the microstructures revealed uniform distribution of particles and at some locations agglomeration of particles and porosity. The results show that hardness and tensile strength of the composites increased, with decreasing size and increasing weight fraction of the particles. The hardness and tensile strength of the forged composites were higher than those of the cast samples.     

Microstructures and corrosion resistance of as‐cast aluminum‐10 wt.% silicon and aluminum‐20 wt.% silicon alloys

The microstructures and corrosion resistance of two as‐cast alloys, aluminum‐10 wt.% silicon hypoeutectic alloy and aluminum‐20 wt.% silicon (weight percent) hypereutectic alloy are investigated by conventional casting, the scanning electron microscope equipped with oxford X‐ray energy dispersive spectroscopy system and transmission electron microscope are applied for analysis. The results show that the microstructures change from the strip‐like into lump shape with the increase of silicon content from 10 % to 20 %. The electrochemical polarization curves prove that the aluminum‐20 wt.% hypereutectic silicon alloy had the better resistance with the corrosion potential of ?1.414 V and corrosion current density of 5.41 ? 10^?5 ampere compared with the aluminum‐10 wt.% silicon hypoeutectic alloy.     

Producing High‐Strength Metals by I‐ECAP

Incremental equal channel angular pressing (I‐ECAP) is used in this work to produce ultrafine‐grained (UFG) pure iron, aluminum alloy 5083, commercial purity titanium (grade 4), and magnesium alloy AZ31B. Pure iron is processed at room temperature, aluminum alloy at 200 °C, titanium at 320 °C, and magnesium alloy at 150 °C. Strength improvement, attributed to the grain refinement below 1 μm, is reported for all processed materials. The yield strength increase is the most apparent in pure iron, reaching almost 500 MPa after one pass of I‐ECAP, comparing to 180 MPa in the as‐forged conditions. UFG titanium, aluminum, and magnesium alloys obtained in this study reached yield stress of 800, 350, and 300 MPa, respectively, in each case exhibiting the yield strength increase by at least 30%, comparing to the alloys processed by conventional metal forming operations such as forging and rolling.     

Microstructure characterization and tensile properties of direct squeeze cast and gravity die cast 2017A wrought Al alloy

Squeeze casting is a pressurized solidification process wherein finished components can be produced in a single process from molten metal to solid utilizing re-useable die tools. This one activates different physical processes which have metallurgical repercussions on the cast material structure. Desirable features of both casting and forging are combined in this hybrid method. 2017A aluminium alloy, conventionally used for wrought products, has been successfully cast using direct squeeze casting. Squeeze casting with an applied pressure removes the defects observed in gravity die cast samples. Tensile properties and microstructures are investigated. The results show that the finer microstructure was achieved through the squeeze casting. Furthermore, higher pressures improved the fracture properties and decreased the percentage of porosity of the cast alloy. The ultimate tensile strength, the yield strength and the elongation of the squeezed cast samples improved when the squeeze pressure increased.     

Fatigue testing and non‐destructive characterization of AlSi9Cu3(Fe) die cast specimens by computer tomography

AlSi9Cu3(Fe) aluminum alloy fatigue test specimens were produced by high pressure die casting (HPDC) and vacuum‐assisted die casting (VPDC) techniques. Non‐destructive material tests (NDT) have been performed on cast specimens by computed tomography (CT). Uniaxial fatigue tests with two stress ratios of R = ?1 and R = 0.1 have been performed in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime, and the CT results were reassigned after the fatigue test in order to identify the origin of the failure. The aim of this paper is to establish a relationship between the CT result and fatigue failure of die cast specimens. The location and the size of the casting defect determine the specimen fatigue life. It has also been found that the fatigue life is determined not only by the size of the defect but also by its location with respect to the position of the highly stressed area. The results can be used to judge the applicability of cast parts after non‐destructive testing.     

液态模锻在铸铝合金中的应用研究

铸铝合金是一种应用比较广泛但是成形较为困难的金属材料，通过液态模锻技术，可以有效地提高材料的成形性能，降低制件、尤其是复杂形状制件的制造成本。铸铝合金制件通过液态模锻成形后，可以达到或接近普通锻件的各项力学性能指标。利用ZL l03合金进行液态模锻试验，所得到的制件的屈服强度为320MPa，硬度HB为110，延伸率为7．0％。     

Verbundschmieden hybrider Stahl‐Aluminium Bauteile

Compound forging of hybrid steel aluminium components Due to a major increase of energy prices the importance of lightweight construction has increased. The production of hybrid compounds by forging is a promising method to successfully manufacture functional parts by few process steps. The heating of hybrid material work pieces made of steel and aluminum is a great challenge. Steel is forged at a temperature of at least 900 °C, while aluminum should not exceed a temperature of 500 °C. For this inhomogenous temperature distribution warming up possibilities are presented.     

Forging of Mg–3Al–1Zn–1Ca alloy prepared by high-frequency electromagnetic casting

The 1 wt.%Ca–AZ31 alloy produced by electromagnetic casting (EMC) in presence of electromagnetic stirring (EMS) was extruded and then subjected to the closed-die forging to make a pulley for automobile application. Effective dynamic recrystallization (DRX) took place during the forging process, leading to formation of fully recrystallized grains with the average size of 3–4 μm. High-forging ability and high degree of grain refinement achieved during the forging were attributed to the novel microstructure of the cast composed of small and equiaxed grains with the average size of 50 μm and thin layer (Al, Mg)₂ Ca phase at grain boundaries, which would provide more nucleation sites and a faster rate of recrystallization during deformation by forging as compared to that of the conventionally processed cast composed of large size grains and thick layer (Al, Mg)₂ Ca phase. The forged pulley exhibited the ultimate tensile strength of 273–286 MPa with tensile elongations of 30%. The present result demonstrates a possibility that EMC + EMS techniques can be used in producing magnesium feed stocks with high-forging ability.     

Herstellung und Eigenschaften einer SiC‐partikelverstärkten AM20 Magnesiumbasis‐Legierung

Production and characteristics of a SiC‐particle reinforced AM20 magnesium alloy In despite of the increasing interest of the industry in extremely lightweight materials during the last years an intensive industrial use of those materials due to the their restricted cold‐workability caused by the hexagonal lattice is still very limited. The application of magnesium alloys is still a problem due to thier low modulus of elasticity, low creep strength, as well as low hardness and wear‐resisting qualities. To improve the mechanical properties and the modulus of elasticity particle reinforcement showing quasi‐isotropic characteristics turned out to be an outstanding solution possibility for an economical optimization of the characteristics of magnesium alloys. In this contribution the production process of an MMC magnesium alloy charging SiC particles directly into the magnesium melt with simultaneous stirring action is described. In addition to the procedure to select optimal stirring parameters a comparison of the improved characteristics of a particle reinforced AM20 magnesium alloy as cast and as extruded with the unmodified AM20 alloy will be carried out. With regard to an improved forgeability, a forged chain wheel consisting of particle reinforced AM20 magnesium alloy is shown.     

Flaws in large 7050 aluminum ring rolled forgings

Defects found in large-diameter 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy ring forgings were characterized with multiple destructive and nondestructive methods. The approximate length, width, and thickness of the flaws were estimated. The orientation of the flaws was found to be consistent with the grain flow within the forging, both in the primary (tangential) direction as well as in the secondary grain flow in the axial-radial plane. Several theories for the continued presence of the defects are supportable based on the data collected in the investigation. The flaws encountered appear to be the result of unhealed porosity. This porosity, resulting from the ingot casting process, is normally closed by the forging process in other forged product. The precise mechanism resisting closure has not been determined, but is speculated to be hydrogen gas.     

Untersuchungen zur Herstellung flächig gekrümmter Bauteile durch den Einsatz der Robotertechnik beim Freiformschmieden

Analyses for the production of plane‐curved work pieces by the assist of a robot in open‐die forging The forging process is characterised by its high level of flexibility of the applicable materials and the semifinished part‐geometry which is achieved by simple tools. A 6‐axis hydraulic forging robot was installed as a manipulator (adequate carrying capacity: 300kg) to complete a hydraulic open‐die‐forging press (max. force: 6,3 MN) at the Institute of Metal Forming (IBF) of the RWTH Aachen University some years ago. The goal was to get a higher complexity and a higher reproducibility of forged workpieces compared to today´s forging plants. This equipment offers the possibility of manufacturing plane‐curved workpieces in an industrial scale by hotforming. The parts can be used for the following closed‐die‐forging operations by material pre‐distribution. An industrial application is an aluminium‐bulkhead applied in aviation, which is subjected to severe material demands.     

Magnesium – der Zukunftswerkstoff für die Automobilindustrie?

Magnesium – future material for automotive industry? Magnesium alloys show a very high potential in automotive applications as constructive metal, whereas the main focus lies on die cast parts. Electronic industry is the major commercial consumer for die castings besides the automobile industry. Room temperature applications like steering wheels and frame components in cars as well as mobile phone‐ or notebook housings are well established. These castings are produced with AZ‐ or AM‐magnesium alloys, which show good room temperature properties and a good castability. The great alloy development challenge in extending the use of magnesium cast alloys are application for higher temperatures. The application in powertrain components is considered to be the benchmark here. Besides alloy development there are also further research activities in development of casting processes. Semi‐solid processes like New‐Rheocasting (NRC), Thoxomolding ? or Thixocasting (TC) are adapted to the requirements of newly developed alloys. Not only cast alloys but also magnesium wrought alloys have moved to the centre of interest in the last decade. Alloy development for improving the formability on the one hand as well as process development in extrusion or rolling has to be done in order to find optimum parameters for deforming magnesium alloys properly.     

Cast Pipe Joints of Fe‐15Mn‐5Si‐8Cr‐5Ni‐0.25C Shape Memory Alloy with High Carbon Content

Abstract: The cast pipe joint of the Fe‐15Mn‐5Si‐8Cr‐5Ni‐0.25C alloy was manufactured (the numbers in the composition denote the weight percentage of the elements while the weight percentage of Fe is the balance). The corresponding microstructure and shape memory effect are compared with those of a forged alloy. The results show that the cast joint has a good shape memory effect and may be industrially applied while the cast joint keeps jointing under a tensile force of 20 kN and a sealing pressure of 5 MPa. Moreover, it is found that the addition of nitrogen in the alloy doesn’t evidently improve the shape memory effect of the alloy.     

Superplastic forming ability of as‐cast AZ91 Mg alloy prepared by twin roll casting

In this study, the twin roll casting process has been utilized to prepare initial as‐cast strip of AZ91 alloy that has been further tested in uniaxial tension at 325, 350 and 375 ºC, and at strain rates from 10^–2 to 10^–4 s^–1. The ability of AZ91 strip to undergo superplastic or superplastic‐like deformation in longitudinal direction, in transverse direction, and in 45 degrees to longitudinal direction was investigated with no further thermal or thermomechanical processing applied prior to the testing. At temperature 350 ºC and medium strain rate the maximum elongation reached almost 200% in direction parallel to the strip casting, however in the transverse and 45 degrees direction, different temperature, and at higher strain rates the maximum elongation was lower. Based on microstructural investigation by means of optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) it could be seen that continuous dynamic recrystallization of initial coarse dendritic as‐cast microstructure during elevated temperature deformation is active and responsible for high elongations. Additional analysis is provided by means of a strain rate sensitivity characterization and its evolution with increased level of strain. Strain rate sensitivity of AZ91alloy increased with increasing level of strain from 0.20 to 0.33.     

Swage casting of A380 alloy

Swage casting is a new casting technique which combines the advantages of squeeze, centrifugal and semi-solid casting methods. In this new casting method, components with one rotating axis can be produced on a swage casting machine from molten metal in a one-step operation. A shape like a “bomb-body” is chosen to demonstrate the advantages of this new method by using A380 Al–Si–Cu alloy. The same alloy is also cast with centrifugal and squeeze casting methods. In this study, the swage casting method and its features are briefly described. The final microstructures, mechanical properties and amount of porosity of the cast pieces produced by squeeze, centrifugal and swage casting methods are compared. Swage cast pieces showed a different composition of microstructure that consists of fine dendritic particles at the chill ends and a mixture of spherical and rosette shaped particles at the core. The swage cast pieces also have a slightly higher mechanical strength as indicated by tensile strength and Brinell hardness values.