界面粗糙度对氧化层残余应力分布的影响

根据热障涂层中陶瓷层和粘结层界面间的氧化层界面形貌和界面粗糙情况,建立了具有氧化层的热障涂层平面应变模型,模拟计算了氧化层界面残余应力分布,分析了粗糙度对氧化层残余应力分布的影响.计算结果表明,随粗糙度的增加,氧化层中的X和Y方向应力值均不断增加,沿着波形下降的趋势应力逐渐增大,波谷处应力最大,且X方向的应力值远大于y的方向应力值.     

TGO及初始裂纹对热障涂层裂纹形核与扩展影响的有限元分析

针对热障涂层系统裂纹的形核位置变化与扩展失效过程及其机理,提出采用内聚力单元分析热氧化物（TGO）层/陶瓷（TC）层界面裂纹的形核位置及扩展,采用扩展有限元法分析TGO层厚度、粗糙度以及TC初始裂纹对新TC、TGO裂纹形核位置及扩展的影响。结果表明:TGO/TC界面承受热循环载荷后,界面裂纹首先出现在近波峰处同时向两侧扩展;在冷却过程中,随着TGO初始厚度增加,TC裂纹的形核位置由波峰转向近波峰处而裂纹扩展长度没有明显变化,TGO裂纹形核位置不变但裂纹长度明显增加;随着TGO粗糙度的不断减小,TC裂纹形核位置由近波峰向中部转移,而裂纹扩展长度没有明显变化。当粗糙度减小到一定程度,TC裂纹被抑制。而TGO裂纹的形核位置没有变化,但裂纹扩展长度随着TGO粗糙度减小而增大;初始横向TC裂纹越长,TGO裂纹也越长。近波峰与中部的初始竖直TC裂纹能有效地抑制新的TC裂纹形核与扩展。本研究为热障涂层微裂纹失效机理提供了理论支撑。     

TGO厚度和界面形貌对新型涂层双管系统应力分布的影响

以700℃新型涂层双管系统为研究对象,采用有限元顺次耦合的计算方法,开展了热机载荷作用下TGO厚度和界面形貌对系统应力分布的影响研究。结果表明:TGO的厚度与其界面粗糙度均会对系统的Mises应力分布产生影响,但是与TGO厚度相比,粗糙度对TGO/BC界面靠近波峰处的Mises应力影响更加显著。此外,在TGO界面幅值和波长一定的条件下,不同的界面波形排列不会直接影响系统TGO/BC界面波峰处的Mises峰值应力;由于幅值和波长变化有效地改变了TGO界面的曲率,它们是控制涂层双管系统TGO/BC界面应力分布的关键特征参量。     

EB-PVD热障涂层系统界面应力的理论分析

目的获得热障涂层系统危险界面应力解析解及其变化规律。方法基于弹性理论,推导出能同时考虑氧化物热生长及其形貌、CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2(CMAS)沉积、温度变化、材料参数不匹配的危险界面应力分布的解析解。分别研究热循环中氧化层热生长和CMAS沉积对热障涂层界面应力的影响,并从应力演化的角度对危险界面微裂纹的萌生和扩展进行预测。结果理论分析显示,当系统经历24个热循环后,陶瓷层/氧化物层界面波谷应力σv从最初的0增加到301.44MPa。氧化物层/粘结层界面波峰应力σp从最初的617MPa增加到1189.89MPa。当CMAS沉积深度hCMAS从0增加到150μm时,应力σv从170.26MPa增加到443.37 MPa,应力σp从1317.83 MPa减小到1050.17 MPa。结论氧化物热生长可以促使陶瓷层/氧化物层界面波谷和氧化物层/粘结层界面波峰裂纹的萌生和扩展。CMAS沉积将进一步促使陶瓷层/氧化物层界面开裂,然而对氧化物层/粘结层界面的开裂有抑制作用。解析解的计算结果与先前的有限元分析结果和模型试验结果相近,证明了该理论方法计算界面应力的准确性。     

基于内聚力单元与XFEM的热障涂层失效分析

为了更好的理解热障涂层的失效机理,文中运用ABAQUS有限元软件来分析热障涂层的失效情况,使用内聚力单元和扩展有限元（XFEM）两种方法研究热障涂层TGO界面开裂与陶瓷涂层（TC）和氧化层（TGO）内随机裂纹的萌生与扩展,研究竖直裂纹与水平裂纹的关系.结果表明,热障涂层TGO界面的开裂首先出现在TGO/TBC波谷处.陶瓷涂层和氧化层内随机裂纹的萌生同样发生在TGO/TBC波谷处.竖直裂纹的存在可以抑制水平裂纹的萌生与扩展,且其在TGO/TBC波谷处的扩展长度比在TGO/TBC波峰处的扩展长度更长,说明TGO/TBC波谷区域是个危险区域,在此区域容易引发裂纹的萌生与扩展.     

氧化铝涂层垂直裂纹对热载荷下界面失效的影响

目的探索氧化铝/铝在热载荷作用下的界面失效机理。方法基于内聚力有限元模型,预测热载荷下铝基氧化铝涂层材料界面处的残余热应力,并系统研究其失效过程。重点考虑涂层厚度、热载荷大小、预制涂层垂直裂纹密度对界面处应力场和界面损伤失效的影响,并同实验进行对比。结果试验和模拟结果都发现,加热到300℃冷却后,界面未产生平行裂纹,而加热到400℃冷却后,界面出现平行裂纹。涂层无裂纹缺陷时,界面处剪应力呈单曲线余弦分布,而有预制裂纹时,界面处的剪应力呈双曲线余弦分布。随着热载荷的增大,界面最大剪应力值由两端向界面中心处迁移。相比涂层有裂纹的情况,界面在涂层无裂纹时平均正应力最小。实际制备的氧化铝涂层不可能完美无裂纹缺陷,在考虑涂层有裂纹缺陷时,涂层裂纹密度为4 mm~(-1)时平均所受正应力较小,且界面只有拉应力作用,不容易产生脱层缺陷。结论存在特定的最佳临界预制垂直裂纹密度值,使得热载荷下界面损伤最小。有限元模拟结果也显示,相同热载荷和相同裂纹密度下,涂层越厚,对界面的防护力也越强。     

真实TGO界面形貌对热障涂层界面应力的影响

采用MSC.MARC有限元分析软件,以真实服役的某重型燃气轮机透平第一级动叶片表面热障涂层为研究对象,研究真实TGO界面形貌对热障涂层界面应力的影响。结果表明:在TC/TGO界面的TC层中,法向应力σ₂₂分布中的拉应力位于波谷区域,压应力位于波峰区域,而在BC/TGO界面的BC层中,σ₂₂应力分布与TC层相反;TC层与BC层的剪切应力σ₁₂分布规律相同,均是波谷左侧的应力方向为负,波谷右侧的应力方向为正。TGO界面的波峰和波谷处的法向应力σ₂₂值随TGO厚度的增大而增加;当TGO厚度不变时,BC/TGO界面振幅增大,TGO内和BC内的法向应力σ₂₂值也随之增大。     

CMAS对热障涂层界面裂纹和残余应力的影响

随着航空发动机涡轮叶片工作温度的提升,使得一种主要由CaO,MgO,Al₂O₃和SiO₂组成的玻璃态物质(CMAS)对热障涂层的危害越来越严重,从而对热障涂层的性能和耐久性有了更高的要求。本文以电子束物理气相沉积热障涂层为研究对象,利用有限元方法研究了CMAS的渗入对界面裂纹扩展及CMAS对陶瓷层(TC)内部残余应力的影响规律。采用波长固定、振幅变化的正弦曲线表示不同粗糙度的涂层界面,同时考虑了CMAS的弹性模量变化的影响及不同界面形貌与CMAS之间的相互作用。结果表明：CMAS弹性模量的增加对界面裂纹具有抑制作用,并且TGO幅值和厚度越小,抑制作用越明显。CMAS弹性模量对TC层最大残余应力S₂₂的影响存在临界点,在临界点之前,CMAS弹性模量的变化对TC层最大残余应力的影响较大,随着CMAS弹性模量的增加,TC层最大残余应力大幅度减小；在临界点之后,TC层最大残余应力基本不受CMAS弹性模量变化的影响。这些结果对电子束物理气相沉积喷涂的热障涂层失效机理的研究具有重要意义,可以为热障涂层界面的优化提供指导。     

热障涂层系统的热梯度机械疲劳应力分析

基于IN738高温合金基体上涂覆的热障涂层系统(Thermal barrier coating system,TBCs),分析热循环和热梯度机械疲劳加载条件下涂层的应力分布及演变。通过有限元分析研究了热生长氧化层(Thermally growth oxidation,TGO)的应力分布,以预测不同载荷作用下TBCs的失效行为。结果可知,在热循环的基础上施加应变载荷会造成TGO应力性质及大小的改变。只施加温度载荷,在加热过程中TGO/粘结层(Bond coat,BC)界面波峰位置会承受轴向较大的拉伸应力,裂纹多会在此处萌生,且以层间开裂的方式失效。而在温度与机械载荷的共同作用下,冷却过程中会承受较大的拉伸应力,显著增大的轴向应力与径向应力共同作用,使垂直于TGO/BC界面的裂纹沿着界面方向扩展,从而造成陶瓷层(Top coat,TC)剥落。进一步对比分析了同相和反相加载时的应力分布,结果表明反相加载时一次循环周期内会产生拉伸平均应力,更易发生TBCs的失效。     

TGO界面特征对热障涂层残余应力的影响

采用非线性有限元方法模拟计算了热障涂层中陶瓷层(TCC)及粘结层(BC)与热生长氧化物(TGO)层界面的残余应力的分布,计算过程中,考虑到了材料物性的非线性特征及界面形貌特征的影响.结果表明,形貌单元尺寸及分布密度对TGO界面应力有明显的影响,TCC/TGO界面的应力大于BC/TGO界面的应力.在锥形坑形貌中心尖点处存在应力集中现象,且呈现最大应力值,是涂层失效的危险点,并且残余应力值随着界面形貌分布密度的增加而减小.     

Fracture mechanics analysis of microcracks in thermally cycled thermal barrier coatings

The effects from thermal shock loading on pre-existing microcracks within thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been investigated through a finite element based fracture mechanical analysis. The TBC system consists of a metallic bond coat and a ceramic top coat. The rough interface between the top and bond coats holds an alumina oxide layer. Stress concentrations at the interface due to the interface roughness, as well as the effect of residual stresses, were accounted for. At the eventual closure between the crack surfaces, Coulomb friction was assumed. To judge the risk of fracture from edge cracks and centrally placed cracks, the stress intensity factors were continuously monitored during the simulation of thermal shock loading of the TBC. It was found that fracture from edge cracks is more likely than from centrally placed cracks. It was also concluded that the propagation of an edge crack is already initiated during the first load cycle, whereas the crack tip position of a central crack determines whether propagation will occur.     

Finite element analysis of stress distribution in thermal barrier coatings

A numerical simulation of crack development within APS TBC systems is presented. The TGO thickening and creep deformation of all system constituents is modelled. Two dimensional periodic unit cell is used to examine the effect of interfacial asperity on stress distribution and subsequent delamination of APS TBC. A study of cyclic loading and of creep of the base material on the stress distribution close to the asperity at the TGO/BC interface is made, revealing a small in?uence influence of both on the stress state in the thermal barrier coating system subjected to temperature loading. Cohesive zone elements at the oxide/ceramic interface model the development of the interfacial micro-crack. The finite element analysis shows that the development of the interfacial crack allows for a micro-crack formation within APS TBC. Subsequent TGO growth results in a tensional zone within the oxide layer. Linking of the micro-cracks at the interface and within TBC through TGO could lead to a coating delamination in the unit cell.     

Experimental and numerical life prediction of thermally cycled thermal barrier coatings

This article addresses the predominant degradation modes and life prediction of a plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coating (TBC). The studied TBC system consists of an air-plasma-sprayed bond coat and an air-plasma-sprayed, yttria partially stabilized zirconia top layer on a conventional Hastelloy X substrate. Thermal shock tests of as-sprayed TBC and pre-oxidized TBC specimens were conducted under different burner flame conditions at Volvo Aero Corporation (Trollhättan, Sweden). Finite element models were used to simulate the thermal shock tests. Transient temperature distributions and thermal mismatch stresses in different layers of the coatings during thermal cycling were calculated. The roughness of the interface between the ceramic top coat and the bond coat was modeled through an ideally sinusoidal wavy surface. Bond coat oxidation was simulated through adding an aluminum oxide layer between the ceramic top coat and the bond coat. The calculated stresses indicated that interfacial delamination cracks, initiated in the ceramic top coat at the peak of the asperity of the interface, together with surface cracking, are the main reasons for coating failure. A phenomenological life prediction model for the coating was proposed. This model is accurate within a factor of 3.     

Analysis of thermoelastic characteristics for vertical-cracked thermal barrier coatings through mathematical approaches

Thermoelastic characteristics of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with vertical cracks were analyzed through mathematical approaches to investigate the thermoelastic behaviors of TBCs in a service temperature. TriplexPro?-200 system was applied to prepare the relatively dense TBC using METECO 204NS powder. The microstructure of top coat in the TBC was just controlled to create vertical type cracks by reheating without powder feeding in same equipment and rapid cooling process. A couple of governing partial differential equations were derived based on the thermoelastic theory, and a finite volume model was developed to the governing equations to evaluate the thermoelastic characteristics, such as temperature distribution profile, displacement, and stress, inducing a thermal fatigue. For the specimen with two or more vertical type cracks, smaller displacement appears to longitudinal direction and larger displacement to radial direction as the number of crack increases. In the longitudinal stress distribution profiles to z-direction, the tensile stress at the interface between the bond coat and the substrate converts into the compressive stress when the specimen has vertical cracks more than two, while larger magnitude undulation develops for the specimen with smaller number of crack in the radial stress distribution profiles. The results obtained demonstrate that multiple vertical cracks enhance the thermal durability and extend the lifetime of TBCs.     

Investigation by 3D FE simulations of delamination crack initiation in TBC caused by alumina growth

In gas turbines, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) applied by air plasma spraying are widely used to reduce the temperature in hot components. The TBC allows higher gas temperature and/or reduces the need for internal cooling in the hot components, thus increasing the efficiency of the gas turbine. Spallation is a common failure mechanism of TBC and occurs after a critical number of thermal cycles, when the alumina layer has grown to a critical thickness. The influence of the growing alumina layer and the top/bond-coat interface roughness in the TBC has been investigated. The primary goal was to identify failure mechanisms that can be incorporated into a life model of the TBC, and to increase the understanding of the delamination process in the TBC. A new formulation of alumina growth is proposed, in which the swelling strains caused by the volumetric increase during alumina growth depends on the stress state. The alumina growth model is used in 3D FE thermal cycling simulations of a TBC in which the thermal cycle time is long enough to characterize a typical cycle of a gas turbine. From the simulations, the growing alumina layer is observed to be one failure mechanism of the TBC. Without an alumina layer in the model, high delamination stress is observed at room temperature, above ridges of the top/bond-coat interface in the top coat. When the alumina is growing, the point of maximum delamination stress is moved towards the valleys. When the thickness of the alumina layer has grown to approximately 8–10 μm, positive delamination stress is found above the valleys in the top coat. The movement of the positive delamination stress region can explain why a delamination crack develops, which will cause spallation of the TBC during shutdown to room temperature.     

Cross-Sectional Residual Stresses in Thermal Spray Coatings Measured by Moiré Interferometry and Nanoindentation Technique

A plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coating (TBC) was deposited on a stainless steel substrate. The residual stresses were firstly measured by moiré interferometry combined with a cutting relaxation method. The fringe patterns in the cross-section of the specimen clearly demonstrate the deformation caused by the residual stress in thermal spray coatings. However, restricted by the sensitivity of moiré interferometry, there are few fringes in the top coat, and large errors may exist in evaluating the residual stress in the top coat. Then, the nanoindentation technique was used to estimate the residual stresses across the coating thickness. The stress/depth profile shows that the process-induced stresses after thermal spray are compressive in the top coat and a tendency to a more compressive state toward the interface. In addition, the stress gradient in the substrate is nonlinear, and tensile and compressive stresses appear simultaneously for self-equilibrium in the cross-section.     

Characterization of a cyclic displacement instability for a thermally grown oxide in a thermal barrier system

The mechanism responsible for the performance of a commercial thermal barrier system upon thermal cycling has been investigated. It comprises an electron beam physical vapor deposited (EB–PVD) yttria-stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coating (TBC) on a (Ni,Pt)Al bond coat. At periodic interfacial sites, the thermally grown oxide (TGO) that forms between the TBC and the bond coat at high temperature displaces into the bond coat with each thermal cycle. These displacements induce strains in the superposed TBC that cause it to crack. The cracks extend laterally as the TGO displaces, until those from neighboring sites coalesce. Once this happens, the system fails by large scale buckling. The displacements are accommodated by visco-plastic flow of the bond coat and “vectored” by a lateral component of the growth strain in the TGO. They depend upon the initial morphology of the metal/oxide interface. The observed responses are compared with the predictions of a ratcheting model.