Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded 5083 and 7075 Aluminum Alloys

Through microscopy, mechanical testing, and numerical modeling, the microstructure and mechanical performance of friction stir welded aluminum alloys 7075-T651 and 5083-H111 were characterized. In particular, the influence of the weld configuration, i.e., the locations of the 7075 and 5083 alloys alternately on the advancing and retreating sides, on material flow, microstructure, and mechanical properties was considered. Thermographic data in conjunction with a process simulation demonstrated that the weld configuration significantly impacts heat generation during friction stir welding. The microstructure in the stir zone was a clear visualization of the material flow and was characterized by a vortex-like structure with alternating bands of the alloys being joined. These bands differed in elemental content and grain size. The microstructure became more complex when greater heat generation (higher temperatures) occurred. The weld configuration strongly influenced the material flow, but did not impact the tensile properties (such as yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation). The configuration of 5083 on the advancing side and 7075 on the retreating side produced the most uniform material flow. The joint efficiencies of all tested welds were above 100%.     

6061-T6/7075-T6异种铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织与性能

利用搅拌摩擦焊实现了2 mm厚7075-T6/6061-T6异种铝合金连接,并对材料放置位置和转速对接头成形与组织性能的影响进行了分析. 结果表明,7075-T6铝合金置于前进侧时更有利于焊接过程中材料的迁移行为,焊缝成形及接头性能更优.当焊接速度为150 mm/min、转速为1 000 r/min时,可获得内部无明显缺陷、外观良好的异种铝合金接头;相较于母材,热力影响区的小角度晶界含量增加,焊核区发生动态再结晶,小角度晶界转化为大角度晶界;接头拉伸性能随转速的增加,呈现先增加后减小的趋势.接头的平均抗拉强度和断后伸长率分别达到231 MPa和4.0%. 接头的断裂位置位于6061侧焊核区,与接头硬度最小位置相吻合.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir weld of dissimilar AZ31-O magnesium alloy to 6061-T6 aluminum alloy

Dissimilar friction stir welding between AZ31-O Mg and 6061-T6 Al alloys was investigated. 3 mm thick plates of aluminum and magnesium were used. Friction stir welding operations were performed at different rotation and travel speeds. The rotation speeds varied from 600 to 1400 r/min, and the travel speed varied from 20 to 60 mm/min. Defect-free weld was obtained with a rotation speed of 1000 r/min and travel speed of 40 mm/min. Metallographic studies showed that the grain size in the stir zone is much finer than that in the base metals. Complex flow pattern was formed in the stir zone. Microhardness measurement revealed an uneven distribution in the stir zone. Tensile test results indicated that the tensile strength of the welded specimen is about 76% of AZ31 Mg alloy and 60% of the 6061 Al alloy in tensile strength. SEM fracture surface image of the welded specimen indicated that the welded specimen failed through brittle-mode fracture.     

Establishing empirical relationships to predict grain size and tensile strength of friction stir welded AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy joints

AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy(Al-Mg-Si alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures requiring a high specific strength and good corrosion resistance.Compared with the fusion welding processes that are routinely used for joining structural aluminium alloys,friction stir welding(FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process in which the material welded does not melt and recast.Joint strength is influenced by the grain size and tensile strength of the weld nugget region.Hence,an attempt was made to develop empirical relationships to predict grain size and tensile strength of friction stir welded AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy joints.The empirical relationships are developed by response surface methodology(RSM) incorporating FSW tool and process parameters.A linear regression relationship was also established between grain size and tensile strength of the weld nugget of FSW joints.     

Microstructure and Strain Hardening of a Friction Stir Welded High-Strength Al–Zn–Mg Alloy

Microstructural evolution and strain hardening behavior of a friction stir welded（FSWed） high-strength7075Al-T651 alloy were evaluated.The nugget zone was observed to consist of fine and equiaxed recrystallized grains with a low dislocation density and free of original precipitates,but containing uniformly distributed dispersoids.The strength,joint efficiency,and ductility of the FSWed joints increased with increasing welding speed.A joint efficiency of ＊91% was achieved at a welding speed of 400 mm/min and rotational rate of 800 r/min,while the ductility remained basically the same as that of the base metal.There was no obvious strain rate sensitivity observed in both base metal and welded joints.While both the base metal and FSWed joints exhibited stage III and IV hardening characteristics,the hardening capacity,strain hardening exponent,and strain hardening rate all increased after friction stir welding.     

异种铝合金摩擦焊接移动速度和旋转速度的优化(英文)

在摩擦焊接过程中的热效应导致的高模量使铝合金容易变形、强度降低。对船用异种铝合金进行了搅拌摩擦焊接。确定5052-0和6061-T6铝合金在焊接时移动速度和旋转速度的最优条件。得到铝合金最佳焊接条件为移动速度61mm/min和旋转速度1600r/min。     

Friction stir welding of co-cast aluminium clad sheet

The effects of welding parameters on material consolidation are examined during friction stir butt welding of 2 mm Al 5083 alloy aluminium sheet with a surface cladding of Al 3025 alloy, which was co-cast from the melt. The influence of welding parameters on joint consolidation is investigated when tool revolutions per minute, travel speed and penetration depth were varied. It was found that modifying the pin of the welding tool to have a two-flat profile improves material consolidation and avoids defect formation during welding, and optimum welding parameters involve a combination of high tool rotation speed and travel speed. Optical and electron microscopy revealed that the integrity of the surface cladding layer could be maintained during friction stir welding while avoiding defect formation within the stir zone of the weld. The tensile strength of the joint was ～58% of the base material due to softening within the stir zone.     

Dissimilar Joining of Pure Copper to Aluminum Alloy via Friction Stir Welding

In this study, the dissimilar friction stir welding(FSW) butt joints between aluminum alloy 5754-H114 and commercially pure copper were investigated. The thickness of welded plates was 4 mm and the aluminum plate was placed on the advancing side. In order to obtain a suitable flow and a better material mixing, a 1-mm offset was considered for the aluminum plate, toward the butt centerline. For investigating the microstructure and mechanical properties of FSWed joints, optical microscopy and mechanical tests(i.e., uniaxial tensile test and microhardness) were used, respectively.Furthermore, the analysis of intermetallic compounds and fracture surface was examined by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The effect of heat generation on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the FSWed joints was investigated. The results showed that there is an optimum amount of heat input. The intermetallic compounds formed in FSWed joints were Al4Cu9 and Al2Cu. The best results were found in joints with 1000 rpm rotational speed and100 mm/min travel speed. The tensile strength was found as 219 MPa, which reached 84% of the aluminum base strength.Moreover, maximum value of the microhardness of the stir zone(SZ) was attained as about 120 HV, which was greatly depended on the grain size, intermetallic compounds and copper pieces in SZ.     

温度峰值影响6061铝/AZ31B镁异种材料FSW接头成形的规律

以6061-T6铝合金与AZ31B镁合金为研究对象,基于Abaqus软件进行了异种材料搅拌摩擦焊过程的温度场数值模拟,重点分析搅拌针偏置镁侧下的搅拌区温度峰值影响焊缝表面成形的规律。结果表明,当焊接温度峰值高于Al-Mg共晶温度时,搅拌针根部附近区域会出现较明显的黏着现象,其随着焊接速度的降低而加剧,这与焊接温度峰值的升高相关。随着焊接速度的增加,焊缝表面更易避免裂纹缺陷的产生。当搅拌头的转速为1200r/min且焊接速度为40mm/min时,6061铝/AZ31B镁异种材料焊接接头的表面成形良好。     

Tensile properties of 6061-T6 friction stir welds and constitutive modelling in transverse and longitudinal orientations

Tensile stress–strain properties of Al alloy 6061-T6 (AA6061-T6) and its butt welds produced by the friction stir welding (FSW) process were characterized in two different loading orientations. AA6061-T6 FS welds were made under three sets of welding conditions. Micro-hardness tests were performed to investigate microstructural evolution during the FSW process. Flat tensile specimens were machined normal and parallel to the weld line. Transvers and longitudinal tensile tests were run on the base material (AA6061-T6) and its FS welds in an Instron testing machine. The strength and ductility (or fracture strain) of the FS welds observed in the transverse orientation were substantially less than those in the longitudinal orientation. Constitutive modelling of uniaxial tensile stress–strain behaviour in both orientations was presented using a rate-independent Ludwik equation. In addition, microstructures of the base material and its FS welds were examined with optical and transmission electron microscopy to discuss the decrease in the flow stress level and the increase in the strain hardening rate of the FS welds.     

30 mm 7A05铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织及力学性能

采用搅拌摩擦焊方法利用新型搅拌头对30 mm厚的7A05-T6铝合金进行了单道对接,焊后分析讨论了焊缝接头微观组织和力学性能.结果表明,接头焊核区发生动态再结晶,生成细小的等轴晶粒;焊缝两侧热力影响区受机械和热的双重作用,组织存在较大差异,前进侧为窄条状组织,后退侧为扁平状组织;热影响区晶粒粗化;在焊接30 mm板时,工艺参数范围较窄,旋转频率为360 r/min,焊接速度为100 mm/min时,可获得无缺陷、成形好的焊缝;接头抗拉强度为367.7 MPa、屈服强度为280.8 MPa、断后伸长率为14.4%高于母材,接头抗拉强度可达母材的95%.接头显微硬度的分布呈类似W形分布,热影响区软化趋势比较明显.     

An Investigation into Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of AA7075-T6 during Friction Stir Welding at Relatively High Rotational Speeds

In this study, microstructural changes and mechanical properties during friction stir welding of AA7075-T6 have been investigated. Friction stir welding at relatively high rotational speeds ranging from 1000 to 1400 rpm and longitudinal speeds in the range of 40 to 80 mm/min have been performed and then microstructures and mechanical properties of the weldments have been studied. The results show that the rotational and longitudinal speeds have a significant effect on the microstructures as well as the mechanical behavior of the welded material while a fine grain structure is produced at higher ratio of rotational speed to longitudinal speed. On the other hand, for a given longitudinal speed, it is revealed that there is an optimum rotational speed which gives the highest tensile strength and elongation for the stirred zone.     

Torque,temperature and hardening precipitation evolution in dissimilar friction stir welds between 6061-T6 and 2014-T6 aluminum alloys

Dissimilar friction stir butt welds between the 2014-T6 and the 6061-T6 Al alloys were performed with various sets of welding parameters including a lateral shift of the tool from the initial separation between the plates to be welded and by placing the alloys, either on the advancing, or on the retreating side of the weld. Torque and temperature measurements during welding as well as macrographies and hardness profiles measurements were performed after welding. It was found that the welding torque, the temperature, the metal flow and the welds’ hardness profile depend on the proportion of each alloy included in the stirred zone. Those results are attributed to the difference between the softening temperatures of both alloys. The 6061 alloy's HAZ is the weak link in all dissimilar welds. The evolution of the hardening precipitation, the hardness and the local yield strength in the 6061 alloy are therefore modeled. The model reasonably well predicts the experimentally measured hardness of both similar and dissimilar welds. It also explains the influence of the alloys placement or tool lateral shift on the welds hardness by their influence on the precipitate radius and volume fraction.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Double-Side Friction Stir Welds Between Medium-Thick 6061-T6 Aluminum and Pure Copper Plates

It is difficult to achieve Al/Cu dissimilar welds with good mechanical properties for medium-thick plates due to the inherent high heat generation rate at the shoulder-workpiece contact interface in conventional friction stir welding. Thus, double-side friction stir welding is innovatively applied to join 12-mm medium-thick 6061-T6 aluminum alloy and pure copper dissimilar plates, and the effect of welding speeds on the joint microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/Cu welds is systematically analyzed. It reveals that a sound Al/Cu joint without macroscopic defects can be achieved when the welding speed is lower than 180 mm/min, while a nonuniform relatively thick intermetallic compound (IMC) layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface, resulting in lots of local microcracks within the first-pass weld under the plunging force of the tool during friction stir welding of the second-pass, and seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the joint. With the increase of welding speed to more than 300 mm/min void defects appear in the joint, but the joint properties are still better than the welds performed at low welding speed conditions since a continuous uniform thin IMCs layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface. The maximum tensile strength and elongation of Al/Cu weld are, respectively, 135.11 MPa and 6.06%, which is achieved at the welding speed of 400 mm/min. In addition, due to the influence of welding distortion of the first-pass weld, the second-pass weld is more prone to form void defects than the first-pass weld when the same plunge depth is applied on both sides. The double-side friction stir welding is proved to be a good method for dissimilar welding of medium-thick Al/Cu plates.     

耐磨铝硅铜合金的双面搅拌摩擦焊

对10 mm厚的铝硅铜合金进行了双面搅拌摩擦焊接,研究了焊接接头的显微组织及力学性能.研究表明,铸态金属晶粒和硅粒子在双面搅拌摩擦焊接过程中得到细化,硅颗粒分布均匀化.反面焊道比正面焊道的晶粒细化和硅粒子均匀化作用更明显.异向焊接的接头强度较低,所有接头均断在焊缝的前进侧.同向焊接的接头强度较高,接头断裂位置取决于焊接参数.选用搅拌头旋转频率为950 r/min、焊接速度为10mm/min的参数焊接时,同向接头表面成形好、内部无缺陷,其强度可达母材的87.4%.     

6061-T6铝合金中空薄壁型材双轴肩搅拌摩擦焊工具设计与工艺分析

基于双轴肩搅拌摩擦焊热输入的理论分析,建立了焊接工具结构尺寸特征值与待焊工件厚度之间的工程模型.利用该工程模型,设计并优化得到适用于厚度为2.5 mm的6061-T6铝合金薄板的双轴肩搅拌摩擦焊工具.使用该工具对中空薄壁型材进行焊接,并对焊接工艺参数进行优化. 结果表明,当焊接工具转速为1 000 r/min、焊接速度为600 mm/min时,可以得到综合力学性能最佳的焊接接头,其中正面焊缝焊接接头抗拉强度可达231 MPa,为母材抗拉强度的77%,弯曲角度达180°;反面焊缝焊接接头抗拉强度可达226 MPa,为母材抗拉强度的76%,弯曲角度达180°.     

Electrochemical corrosion behaviour of stir zone of friction stir welded dissimilar joints of AA6061 aluminium–AZ31B magnesium alloys

Joining of dissimilar metals will offer many advantages in transportation sectors such as fuel consumption, weight reduction and emission reduction. However, joining of aluminium (Al) alloys with magnesium (Mg) alloys by fusion welding process is very complicated. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a feasible method to join these two dissimilar alloys. Mixing these two metals together in stir zone (SZ) leads to poor corrosion resistance. In this investigation, an attempt has been made to understand the corrosion resistance of SZ of FSWed dissimilar joints of AA6061 Al alloy and AZ31B Mg alloy. Potentiodynamic polarization test was conducted by varying chloride ion concentration, pH value of the NaCl solution and exposure time. The corroded surfaces were analyzed using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and XRD techniques. Of these three factors investigated, exposure time is found to be the most significant factor to influence the corrosion behaviour of SZ of friction stir welded dissimilar joints of Al/Mg alloys.     

Realising equal strength welding to parent metal in precipitation-hardened Al–Mg–Si alloy via low heat input friction stir welding

Two millimetres thick Al–Mg–Si (6061Al-T6) alloy plates were friction stir welded at various welding conditions. Under a low rotation rate of 400?rev?min^–1 with rapid water cooling, the softening zone in the joint disappeared and a nanostructure with an average grain size of 80?nm was obtained in the stir zone (SZ). Therefore, a weld with equal strength to the parent metal (PM) was successfully achieved with the fracture occurring in the PM. Further, the average microhardness and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the SZs increased with the decreasing rotation rate and increasing cooling speed. The average microhardness and UTS of the SZ with nanostructure reached up to 134?HV and 505?MPa, respectively; though the initial strengthened precipitates disappeared. This work provides an effective strategy of achieving high property joints and enhancing the mechanical properties of precipitation-hardened Al alloys.     

Macrostructures and mechanical properties of ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding joint of 2024-T3 aluminium alloy

In friction stir welding of aluminum alloys, tunnel defect may occur due to insufficient plastic material flow caused by lower heat input in the weld region. The inadequacy in heat input is due to improper selection of friction stir welding tool and process parameters. Ultimately, such defects degrade the properties of weld and may pose serious concerns towards the integrity and safety of the weld component. In order to improve the properties of weld joints, an ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding device has been configured where ultrasonic energy is transferred from an ultrasonic unit directly into one of the workpieces near the tool. Using this configuration, ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding was conducted on 6 mm thick 2024-T3 aluminum alloy sheets. The macrostructure and mechanical properties of these welds were compared with the welds of this alloy prepared by conventional friction stir welding using identical process parameters. The results show that the welding speed can be increased while satisfactory weld quality is still ensured. The ultrasonic energy transferred in this configuration could enlarge the volume of weld nugget zone. Also, the influence of ultrasonic energy on the suppression or elimination of the tunnel defect is quite apparent. However, any beneficial effects of ultrasonic vibration on the tensile strength and the elongation of the joint were less obvious in this configuration.     

7055铝合金搅拌摩擦焊工艺

利用正交试验法研究搅拌摩擦焊工艺参数对4 mm厚7055-T6铝合金对接接头力学性能和显微组织的影响。结果表明:焊接速度对接头抗拉强度影响最大,旋转速度和压入量依次减小;最优参数焊接的试样的抗拉强度为475.5 MPa,接头强度系数0.788;焊缝的显微硬度低于母材,呈"W型"分布;在正弯角约75.4°和背弯角约62.1°时出现开裂。