大峡工程低微水泥混凝土徐变变形研究

本文结合大峡水电工程混凝土徐变变形资料,研究了补偿收缩型低热微膨胀水泥混凝土的自生体积变形、徐变变形及应办松驰系数等,并和其它工程资料进行了分析比较,为工程坝体温控计算提供了依据.     

The role of reverse temper embrittlement on some low and high temperature crack extension processes in low carbon, low alloy steels: A review

The present paper attempts to review the influence or role that reverse temper embrittlement (RTE) plays on the low temperature (<400°C) environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) processes in aqueous environments and the high temperature ( > 400°C) creep dominated crack growth processes prevalent in low carbon, low alloy steels. RTE is a generic problem in iron based alloys and causes a marked reduction in the cohesion strength of grain boundaries due to the segregation of impurity solute atoms.

It has been shown that there is a strong possibility that RTE can promote or enhance EAC in low alloy steels (the heat affected zone in weldments being the most susceptible) subjected to aqueous environments at temperatures below about 350°C.

At higher operational temperatures, viz. above 400°C, the characteristics of creep embrittlement are discussed and three microstructural features which contributed to this phenomena are highlighted. Proposals aimed at mitigating creep embrittlement processes in low alloy steels are forwarded.

In certain steels it was recorded that two embrittlement processes were prevalent at operational temperatures in the range 450–550°C, viz. RTE and an irreversible creep embrittlement which was prevalent when large deformation occurred in service. Indeed both 2·25 Cr1Mo and Cr-Mo-V steels were severely temper embrittled at service temperatures of 430°C while the Cr-Mo-V steels did not exhibit evidence of RTE at higher service temperatures of around 530°C. However, the effects of RTE in promoting creep embrittlement are, as yet, unclear.     

Identification of creep damage variable from A-parameter by a stochastic analysis

Identification of creep damage variable D of continuum damage theory from the metallographic A-parameter is discussed. By performing a stochastic analysis, A-parameter, defined as the observed fraction of cavitated grain boundaries on the observation plane, was first related to the cavity area fraction on the grain boundary facet planes. Based on the results of this analysis, the cavitation damage states of some engineering alloys were estimated by use of the data of the measured A-parameter. Finally, according to the usual interpretation of the damage variable D, specific D-A relations were derived. The validity and the utility of the proposed D-A relations, based on the test results of an engineering alloy, are discussed.     

Effect of creep deformation on Z phase formation in Gr.91 steel

Abstract

In order to make clear the effect of creep deformation on Z phase formation in Gr.91 steel, creep interrupted tests were performed for 10?000, 20?000, 30?000, 50?000 and 70?000 h at 600°C under 70 MPa. The time to rupture was 80?736·8 h at 600°C under 70 MPa. Z phase was observed in the vicinity of prior austenite grain boundaries in the grip and gauge portions after creep deformation for 10?000 h and more. Number density of Z phase particles increased with increasing creep time in the grip and gauge portions. The number densities of MX carbonitrides particles in the grip and gauge portions clearly started to decrease after 30?000 h corresponding to increase in number density of Z phase. In the gauge portion, the number density of MX carbonitrides particles was almost the same as that of Z phase particles after creep rupture, meaning that a large number of MX carbonitrides particles were disappeared. The number density of Z phase particles in the gauge portion was 2·5 times of that in the grip portion after creep rupture. This indicates that creep deformation promotes the Z phase formation.     

Creep deformation characterization of heat resistant steel by stress change test

To evaluate the creep deformation mechanism of heat resistant steel, stress change tests were conducted during creep tests for Modified 9Cr–1Mo Steel and 2.25Cr–1Mo Steel. In this study it was confirmed that the dislocation behavior during the creep tests was in viscous manner because of no instantaneous plastic strain observed at stress increments. Transient backward creep behavior was observed after stress reduction for these steels in this work. Mobilities of dislocation were evaluated by observed backward creep behavior after stress reductions. Internal stresses were evaluated by the changes of creep rate in stress increments. And mobile dislocation densities were evaluated with the estimated mobilities of dislocation and the changes of creep rate in stress increments. It was found that the variation of evaluated mobile dislocation densities during creep deformation showed the same tendency as the variation of creep rate. Therefore mobile dislocation density is the dominant factor that influences the creep rate variation in creep deformation of these steels in this work. The mobilities of dislocation showed a good correlation with 1/T and related with solute amount of Mo that is a solution hardening element.     

非线性徐变模型在泄洪洞衬砌混凝土温控仿真分析中的应用

针对地下工程衬砌混凝土温控仿真分析中徐变变形和温度应力的关系,基于有限元分析软件ANSYS,以溪洛渡泄洪洞无压段衬砌混凝土温控仿真分析为例,比较分析了线性和非线性徐变模型计算的温度应力的差异。结果表明,当温度应力与相应龄期抗拉强度的比值小于0.5时,差异很小;但当温度应力与相应龄期抗拉强度的比值大于0.5时,差异则较显著,为地下工程衬砌混凝土温控分析提供了参考。     

Microstructural analysis of creep exposed IN617 alloy

Abstract

Ni base alloys such as IN617 are one of the preferred choices for steam turbine components used by fossil fuelled power generation plants. IN617 is a solid solution strengthened Ni based superalloy containing ～23%Cr, 12%Co and 9%Mo with low content of precipitation strengthening elements Al, Ti and Nb. In the 'as received' (solution annealed condition), the microstructure consists of primary carbides (M₂₃C₆) and occasional TiN particles dispersed in a single phase austenitic matrix. Owing to high temperature exposure and the creep deformation processes that occur in service, evolution of the microstructure occurs. This results in secondary precipitation and precipitate coarsening, both on grain boundaries and intragranularly in areas of high dislocation density. The influence of creep deformation on the solution treated IN617 alloy at an operating condition of 650 ～C/574 h, with emphasis on the morphology and distribution of carbide/nitride precipitation is discussed. The applied stress was at an intermediate level.     

Prestrain effects on creep ductility of a 316 stainless steel light forging

Specimens were machined from a section of 316 stainless steel header which was in service for approximately 30 000 h. Constant stress creep tests were performed at 450 MPa and 575°C on materials subjected to various levels of prestrain to determine the effect of prior deformation on subsequent creep behaviour. The results show that, provided the prestrain exceeds the initial strain on loading to the creep test conditions in the un-prestrained condition, a significant reduction in rupture life, minimum creep rate and creep ductility was obtained by increasing prestrain. The Monkman–Grant relationship proved to be a reliable indicator of the effect of prestrain on creep properties and showed that the reduced rupture lives were a consequence of the progressive exhaustion of creep ductility with prestrain.     

Creep property of carbon and nitrogen free high strength new alloys

The carbon and nitrogen free new alloys which were composed of supersaturated martensitic microstructure with high dislocation density before the creep test have been investigated systematically. These alloys were produced from the new approach which raised creep strength by the utilization of the reverse transformed austenite phase as a matrix and intermetallic compounds such as Laves phase and mu-phase as precipitates during heating before the creep test. It is important that these alloys are independent of any carbides and nitrides as strengthening factors. The high temperature creep test over 700 °C exceeds 50,000 h, and the test is continuous. Creep behavior of the alloys is found to be different from that of the conventional high-Cr ferritic steels. The addition of boron to the alloy pulled the recrystallization temperature up in the high temperature, and it became a creep test in the un-recrystallization condition, and the creep property of high temperature over 700 °C was drastically improved. The minimum creep rates of Fe–Ni alloys at 700 °C are found to be much lower than those of the conventional high Cr ferritic heat resistant steels, which is due to fine dispersion strengthening useful even at 700 °C in these alloys. As a result it became clear that the value for 100,000 h was exceeded at 700 °C and 100 MPa calculated from the Larson-Miller parameter at C = 20.     

Damage assessment method of P91 steel welded tube under internal pressure creep based on void growth simulation

Development of creep damage assessment methods for longitudinal welded piping of P91 steel is important and an urgent subject to maintain reliable operation of boilers in ultra super critical thermal power plants. Internal pressure creep tests were conducted on P91 steel longitudinal welded tubes to characterize the evolution of creep damage in a heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the longitudinal welded pipe. Failure occurred at a heat-affected zone without significant macroscopic deformation. It was found that initiation of creep voids had concentrated at mid-thickness region rather than surface. Three-dimensional finite element (FE) creep analysis of the creep tested specimens was conducted to identify stress and creep strain distribution within the specimen during creep. Finite element creep analysis results indicated that triaxial tensile stress yielded at the mid-thickness region of the HAZ. It was suggested that the triaxial stress state caused acceleration of the creep damage evolution in the heat-affected zone resulting in internal failure of the tube specimens. Void growth behavior in the heat-affected zone was well predicted with the previously proposed void growth simulation method by introducing void initiation function to the method. A “limited strain” was defined as rupture criterion and dependency of the maximum stress and multiaxiality on the “limited strain” was derived by the void growth simulation. Creep damage distribution in the HAZ under the internal creep test was calculated by proposed damage assessment method.     

Identification of creep damage variable from A-parameter by a stochastic analysis

Identification of creep damage variable D of continuum damage theory from the metallographic A-parameter is discussed. By performing a stochastic analysis, A-parameter, defined as the observed fraction of cavitated grain boundaries on the observation plane, was first related to the cavity area fraction on the grain boundary facet planes. Based on the results of this analysis, the cavitation damage states of some engineering alloys were estimated by use of the data of the measured A-parameter. Finally, according to the usual interpretation of the damage variable D, specific D-A relations were derived. The validity and the utility of the proposed D-A relations, based on the test results of an engineering alloy, are discussed.     

基于改进Harris函数的岩石蠕变损伤模型及二次开发

针对水电工程中岩石蠕变变形现象,以泥岩为例,开展三轴压缩蠕变试验。基于蠕变试验结果,引入Harris函数,建立一种新的蠕变损伤演化方程。引入一个非线性粘塑性体,与Burgers模型串联并进行损伤演化,从而建立一个新的非线性粘弹塑性蠕变损伤模型。对该模型的三维差分形式进行推导,在FLAC3D平台上利用C++和FISH编程进行二次开发,实现该蠕变损伤本构模型的自定义。利用数学优化软件1stOpt求取模型参数,将该自定义模型及参数应用于三轴压缩蠕变试验的模拟,还原实际试验条件,对比试验数据和模拟值,验证该损伤本构模型的合理性及模型参数的正确性。研究结果可为岩石蠕变损伤本构模型的构建及类似蠕变本构模型的二次开发提供参考。     

The behaviour of ferritic weldments in thick section pipe at elevated temperature

A major collaborative research programme is being carried out within the CEGB to examine the correlation between data, produced from a range of test methods, which are currently used in the design of welded steam pipes. In the part of the programme reported here, the elastic and creep deformation occurring in low alloy ferritic steel pipe-to-pipe weldments has been studied in pressure vessel experiments conducted at 565°C and 455 bar internal steam pressure. The welds were made in parent pipe using mild steel and low alloy 1CrMo, 2CrMo and weld metals. All the weldments were post-weld heat treated for 3 h at 700°C prior to testing. In addition, the weldments, represented as parent material, heat affected zone and weld metal, have been analysed to determine stresses and strains using a finite element three-material model.The main features of the macro- and micro-structures of the four weldments are briefly described. Results are then presented for the elastic and creep deformations observed in both the hoop and axial directions in the weldments. The experimental creep strain data are then used as a basis for calculating the stationary state stresses present on the surface of the weldments. The surface stationary state stress distribution and corresponding steady state strain rates, determined using the finite element model, are then presented.The pressure vessel experimental results and the data from the finite element analysis are discussed in terms of the hoop and axial deformation in the weldments. An assessment is then made of the correlation between the results from the experimental and analytical approaches. Finally, the practical implications of the present results are considered with respect to the design of operating plant.     

Accelerated material data generation for viscoplastic material models based on complex LCF and incremental creep tests

Viscoplastic material models are quite important for realistic characterization of deformation behaviour of high-temperature components. However, their material parameter adjustment is expensive and usually requires extensive material testing. The high-temperature deformation behaviour of cast iron GJS X SiMo 4.1 was determined by accelerated complex material testing methods in order to establish a cost-effective identification of viscoplastic material model parameters. Incremental creep tests with mixed-load and temperature steps, together with relaxation and stepped-tensile tests, were carried out in order to determine the stress-dependent creep strain rate at characteristic temperatures and stresses. The cyclic plastic deformation behaviour was studied with complex low-cycle fatigue (C-LCF) evaluations at varying strain rates, amplitudes and temperatures. Thereafter, the results were employed to identify material model parameters of a Chaboche-type viscoplastic material model, which was applied to represent the cyclic deformation and creep behaviour with a correct representation of strain-rate effects at low strain rates.     

Damage of low-alloy high temperature steels loaded by low-cycle fatigue and creep

Present-day models used for calculations of life at combinations of low-cycle fatigue loading and creep mostly work with experimental curves of life at constant amplitude of deformation. However, during such a type of loading, a relative proportion of damage caused by low-cycle fatigue and creep is changed.On the basis of large-extension experimental measurement made on low-alloy CrNiMoV and CrMoV steels, a model describing life of steels at combination of low-cycle fatigue and creep was proposed. The model is suitable for a wide temperature interval, different loading amplitudes and different values of maximum load during the cycle, when creep occurs. The model enables to specify not only the damage, but also values of deformation at all stadia of creep and it is suitable for an evaluation of the life curves on the basis of the three-parameters rain-flow method.     

Modelling crack growth for creep and fatigue loading

Estimates of creep crack growth in engineering components under steady load conditions are usually based on the application of fracture mechanics concepts. In particular the creep parameter C* has become widely used together with creep crack growth data obtained from laboratory tests. There are now a number of practical methods to utilise experimental data. For high temperature components, which are subjected to cyclic (fatigue) as well as creep loading, the estimation of the fracture mechanics parameters becomes much more difficult, and consequently the extent to which the growth of pre-existing cracks grow by creep and fatigue is difficult to quantify. In this paper the response of Type 316L stainless steel is examined. This material progressively strain hardens under reversed cyclic loading, and the creep behaviour also changes. Using uniaxial fatigue and creep results, fracture parameter maps are developed to establish the appropriate regimes for creep-fatigue crack growth. Using the maps a model is developed which can predict the combined effect of fatigue and creep on crack growth. The implications of the model are discussed in relation to the limitations of obtaining results from laboratory tests at short times, and the assessment of practical engineering components.     

CF8C plus: a new high temperature austenitic casting alloy for advanced power systems

Abstract

A new cast austenitic stainless steel, CF8C plus, has been developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Caterpillar for a wide range of transportation and energy applications. CF8C plus steel has improved high temperature tensile, creep, fatigue, and creep–fatigue properties compared with standard CF8C steel. Changes to the CF8C steel composition, including additions of Mn and N, result in changes to the solidification behaviour and final microstructure of the alloy, which directly relate to the improved mechanical properties. Additionally, CF8C plus is a relatively inexpensive steel which exhibits good castability. The mechanical properties of the alloy have generated significant interest for the production/design of cast components for diesel engine turbochargers and other exhaust components, natural gas reciprocating engines for distributed power, and turbine end covers and casings for land based turbines. In the present paper, the microstructural evolution of CF8C and CF8C plus are presented in more detail, and the mechanical properties of the alloys are compared with each other and other engineering alloys.     

An anisotropic tertiary creep damage constitutive model for anisotropic materials

When an anisotropic material is subject to creep conditions and a complex state of stress, an anisotropic creep damage behavior is observed. Previous research has focused on the anisotropic creep damage behavior of isotropic materials but few constitutive models have been developed for anisotropic creeping solids. This paper describes the development of a new anisotropic tertiary creep damage constitutive model for anisotropic materials. An advanced tensorial damage formulation is implemented which includes both material orientation relative to loading and the degree of creep damage anisotropy in the model. A variation of the Norton-power law for secondary creep is implemented which includes the Hill’s anisotropic analogy. Experiments are conducted on the directionally-solidified bucket material DS GTD-111. The constitutive model is implemented in a user programmable feature (UPF) in ANSYS FEA software. The ability of the constitutive model to regress to the Kachanov-Rabotnov isotropic tertiary creep damage model is demonstrated through comparison with uniaxial experiments. A parametric study of both material orientation and stress rotation are conducted. Results indicate that creep deformation is modeled accurately; however an improved damage evolution law may be necessary.