Evaluating real-time air-quality data as earthquake indicator

A catastrophic earthquake, namely the 921-earthquake, occurred with a magnitude of M_L = 7.3 in Taiwan on September 21, 1999, causing severe disaster. The evaluation of real-time air-quality data, obtained by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), revealed a staggering increase in ambient SO₂ concentrations by more than one order of magnitude across the island several hours prior to the earthquake, particularly at background stations. The abrupt increase in SO₂ concentrations likely resulted from seismic-triggered degassing instead of air pollution. An additional case of a large earthquake (M_L = 6.8), occurring on March 31, 2002, was examined to confirm our observations of significantly enhanced SO₂ concentrations in ambient air prior to large earthquakes. The coincidence between large earthquakes and increases in trace gases during the pre-quake period (several hours) indicates the potential of employing air-quality monitoring data to forecast catastrophic earthquakes.     

Formation,distribution and risk control of landslides in China

China is a country with a large population as well as frequent landslides. The formation and distribution of landslides in China are determined by its special topography, complex geological environment, active earthquake environment and unusual climate features. This paper analyzes the main features and distribution of 200 catastrophic landslides that occurred in China since 1900. The relationships among the distribution of landslides and topographic conditions, geological structure, climate features and st...     

Earthquake-triggered landslides by the 1718 Tongwei earthquake in Gansu Province,northwest China

The 1718 great Tongwei earthquake in northwest China caused more than 300 large-scale landslides near the epicenter resulting in more than 70,000 deaths. Although previous studies agree that the earthquake-induced landslides in the area are loess-landslides, which slid along ancient terrain surfaces, there is a dearth of evidence to unravel the actual failure mechanisms of these widely-documented events. To clarify their characteristics and mechanisms, the landslides in Pan’an Town, located in Gansu Province, China were rigorously investigated. The field surveys revealed that the landslides occurred in an area comprising loess deposits of several tens of meters underlain by a basal mudstone layer. It was also revealed that instability in the area is strongly influenced by a river valley with large erosion bank slopes, as well as steep mudstone slopes, which are well developed. The majority of the landslides triggered by the Tongwei earthquake were loess-mudstone composite landslides, with the sliding surface in the deep mudstone. Three huge landslides on the northern mountain located at the river bend of Pan’an Town with a total volume of about 6.06 × 10⁸ m³ are the main mass movements during the 1718 catastrophe. In addition, by taking the typical landslide named the Weijiawan landslide as a case study, the internal structure of the earthquake-triggered landslides and their stability were studied. The new findings not only aided the unraveling of the failure mechanisms but also provided insights and knowledge on early recognition of earthquake-triggered landslides in northwest China towns, especially in the surrounding valley, which shares similar geological conditions with landslides studied in this paper.     

Damage Survey Report on May 27, 2006, Mid Java Earthquake,Indonesia

On May 27, 2006, the Mid Java Earthquake hit around Jogjakarta City in Java Island, Indonesia. In this report, results from field investigations on geotechnical issues conducted by the Japanese Geotechnical Society survey team are summarized. At several sites where liquefaction occurred in lowland areas, subsurface soil conditions consisting of high groundwater table with soft soil deposits were identified. The liquefaction caused frequent plugging of wells. In these lowland areas, high collapse ratio of houses was reported, which may be linked to the directivity of earthquake motions affected by the earthquake fault location and/or their amplification in the soft soil deposits. In mountainous areas, a large scale landslide and a large number of slope failures and rock falls occurred. Earth fill dams suffered from cracking at the crest, while the rate of the leakage water from the toe of the downstream slope was not changed. Some recommendations are made in conducting detailed analyses and executing rehabilitation works on the damaged dams.     

Estimation of In-Situ Shear Strength Parameters of Weathered Granitic (MASADO) Slopes Using Lightweight Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

A major problem in the geotechnical approach to the stability of natural slopes is that there is usually little information on the in-situ geotechnical conditions, because of the extreme difficulty associated with ground investigations of steep slopes covered with vegetation. In this study, a lightweight dynamic cone penetration test (LWDCPT) has been introduced for a geotechnical survey of natural weathered granitic (Masado) slopes. Based on a series of direct shear tests, the internal friction angle and the apparent cohesion of reconstituted Masado soil were found to be fairly closely related to the void ratio and the degree of saturation in the soil. From the laboratory calibration tests, an equation was created to relate the dynamic cone resistance (q_d) and the void ratio of reconstituted Masado under different degrees of saturation. Equations were developed to calculate the internal friction angle and the apparent cohesion from the value of q_d for Masado at a known degree of saturation. LWDCPT and direct shear tests were carried out on undisturbed samples taken from a natural Masado slope. The estimated internal friction angle and the apparent cohesion calculated with the value of q_d in the LWDCPTs agreed fairly well with those of tests on the undisturbed samples obtained in laboratory shear tests.     

基于GIS的汶川地震滑坡灾害影响因子确定性系数分析

 2008年5月12日14时28分,四川省汶川发生了8.0级大地震,地震诱发了数以万计的滑坡灾害。在大约48 678 km2的区域内,采用震后航空像片与多源卫星影像解译并结合野外调查验证的方法,共圈定出48 007个地震滑坡灾害。在此基础上,选取地层、岩性、断裂、地震烈度、宏观震中、地表破裂调查点、地形坡度、坡向、顺坡向曲率、高程、水系与公路共12个影响因子作为汶川地震诱发滑坡影响因子,利用GIS强大的空间分析能力与确定性系数方法,对这12个影响因子进行敏感性研究。研究结果表明：(1) 寒武与震旦系是地震滑坡易发地层,侵入岩组、灰岩为主的岩组是地震滑坡发育的高敏感性岩组;(2) 地震滑坡受中央断裂影响最大,同时还受控于前山断裂,受后山断裂的影响较小;(3) 地震滑坡易发性分别随着地震烈度、与震中的距离、与地表破裂点距离的增加而减少;(4) 坡度大于40°是地震滑坡的易发坡度,E,ES方向为地震滑坡的易发坡向,高程范围为1 000～2 000 m,尤其是高程1 000～1 500 m范围为地震滑坡易发区;(5) 400 m水系缓冲区和2 000 m公路缓冲区范围内滑坡易发性较高。确定研究区内各地震滑坡影响因子最利于滑坡发生的数值区间,为进一步地震滑坡区域评价及预测奠定基础。     

Catastrophic landslides and debris flows in Thailand

Extremely intense rainfall of November 1988 in Southern Thailand triggered the worst natural disaster of the country. Widespread slope failures took place in the mountainous and hilly areas in the region that was previously considered to have low risk of landslides. Most slope failures occurred in the vicinity of the steep granitic Khao Luang Mountains where several villages along their rims were almost wiped out by catastrophic debris flows. This paper summarizes findings of a post-event study to determine the characteristics of the slope failures and their relation to geological setting, weathering characteristics, slope gradient, land use practice (vegetation cover) and rainfall intensity. Engineering characteristics of the weathered granite which was the predominant medium involved in the slope failures was also studied.     

GIS支持下基于层次分析法的汶川地震区滑坡易发性评价

 2008年5月12日14时28分,四川汶川发生了Ms8.0级大地震,地震诱发了数以万计的滑坡灾害。在大约48 678 km2的区域内,采用震后遥感影像解译并结合野外调查的方法,共解译出48 007个滑坡。应用GIS技术,建立了汶川地震诱发滑坡灾害及相关地形、地质空间数据库,分析了断层、岩性、高程、坡度、坡向、河流、公路等7个因素与滑坡分布的关系,应用滑坡面积百分比这一标准来分别衡量每个因素中各个级别对滑坡的影响程度;然后使用层次分析法对这7个参数进行权重分析;在GIS平台下对这些参数进行综合分析,通过分析结果将研究区内滑坡按易发程度分为极高易发区、高易发区、中易发区、低易发区与极低易发区5类,极高易发区与高易发区面积约8 211 km2,占研究区总面积的16.9%;最后,使用汶川地震滑坡数据库对研究结果进行检验,检验曲线表明分区效果良好,其中极高易发区与高易发区内实际发生滑坡面积为430 km2,占滑坡总面积的60.5%。     

河北保定阜平县城地质灾害分布及影响因素

河北保定阜平县城位于山区,地质环境条件较为复杂,地质灾害时有发生,研究地质灾害分布规律及影响因素对阜平县城未来规划建设具有重要意义。通过资料分析与实地调查,阜平县城及周边地质灾害点共16处,其中泥石流4处,滑坡5处,崩塌7处,发育规模以小型为主。崩塌、滑坡主要分布在构造剥蚀地貌与河谷平原地貌接触部位、风化强烈的坚硬层状变质岩体中,泥石流主要分布在矿山地段。研究区地质灾害的形成的基本条件是地形地貌、岩土体类型及风化程度等因素,降雨、地震和人类工程活动是地质灾害形成的重要影响因素。     

The influences of geological and land use settings on shallow landslides triggered by an intense rainfall event in a coastal terraced environment

Several factors (including slope morphology, geological and structural settings, the mechanical properties of soils, weathering, hydrological and hydrogeological conditions and land use changes) can affect the origin and development of shallow landslides induced by rainfall. On 25 October 2011, an intense rainfall occurred in a wide area of Italy between eastern Liguria and northern Tuscany, triggering thousands of shallow landslides and causing widespread flooding. Floods and landslides caused severe damage to villages and infrastructure and caused 13 fatalities. This study was conducted to investigate the shallow landslides triggered by the rainfall in the Vernazza basin (Cinque Terre in eastern Liguria), where landslides and debris floods caused 3 fatalities and damage of approximately €130 million. The Vernazza basin, which is characterised by steep slopes, geological heterogeneity and unusual land use settings (approximately 50 % of the slopes have been terraced for centuries), was chosen as the focus of this study, conducted to assess the influences of several factors on landslide occurrence. Field surveys and engineering geological investigations, including laboratory and in situ tests, were carried out at various sites to assess the stratigraphic and geotechnical features of the soil slope covers. A basic engineering geological zoning was carried out, taking into account the bedrock lithology, the geotechnical properties of the soils and the land use settings. On the basis of a detailed inventory of the shallow landslides that occurred, the distribution of the landslides was analysed with respect to the slopes, the bedrock lithology, the land uses and the engineering geological setting. Terraced areas on impermeable bedrock were identified as the main landslide-prone areas. The results of the study also showed that the time since abandonment of terraces plays an important role in the occurrence of shallow landslides induced by rainfall.     

Studies on passive flexible protection to resist landslides caused by the May 12, 2008, Wenchuan earthquake

The landslides caused by the 5.12 Wenchuan earthquake resulted in enormous casualties and property losses. Since the earthquake, more than 3,600 landslides have occurred, and 17 of them were catastrophic, each of which has killed more than 30 people. Meanwhile, passive flexible protection has gradually been introduced to resist landslides due to its significant advantages of economy, safety, and environmental protection. To resist landslides effectively, it is necessary to study the load path and design method of passive flexible protection under the action of landslides. In the design of passive flexible protection against landslides, determination of the landslide load is the primary task. In this paper, the formulas of the probability density function and distribution function of the landslide pressure are developed to obtain the value of the accumulated landslide pressure acting on the passive flexible protection, which can be used as the load input parameter in the design of passive flexible protection to resist landslides. Based on the case of the “Shiziliang” potential landslide for the 5.12 earthquake, the pressure data of the landslide are collected, the calculation formulas of the volume, and the pressure of the intercepted landslide are established, and the statistical parameters of the landslide pressure‐loading sample are obtained. According to the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test method, the loading sample of the landslide pressure obeys an extreme‐value type‐I distribution, and then the load model of the landslide pressure is determined. Based on the reliability analysis method, the standard value of the landslide pressure with an over‐95% assurance rate is obtained. These results can provide references for load confirmation to design the passive flexible protection to resist landslides.     

Reconnaissance of the 2017 Puebla,Mexico earthquake

A normal-fault earthquake (M_w?=?7.1) occurred in the state limit of Puebla and Morelos on September 19, 2017, exactly 32?years after the 1985 Michoacan Earthquake. A total of 5765 buildings suffered damage in Mexico City and about 300 in Puebla City. The authors carried out a reconnaissance of Mexico City, and some locations in the states of Puebla and Morelos, to identify the affected areas and the extent of damage. This report is a summary of the damage characteristics observed during the survey for both structural and geotechnical aspects. A series of microtremor measurements were taken to understand the ground motion characteristics in three key areas of the Mexico City Basin. The results are presented and compared to the data gathered from the accelerograph network available in Mexico, and the damage characteristics are discussed. Whenever relevant, the conditions before the earthquake are compared with the damage encountered by the inclusion of photographs. In order to understand the extent of the damage incurred by the 2017 earthquake, an overview is provided of the geological and geotechnical conditions of Mexico City, which is renowned for its soft soils and problems associated with those soils. Given that the 1985 Michoacan Earthquake established the standards for seismic design in Mexico City, this report provides background on the effects of the 1985 earthquake and comparisons are made with the Puebla earthquake.     

Estimation of soil properties of shallow landslide source areas by dynamic penetration tests: first outcomes from Northern Tuscany (Italy)

In Northern Tuscany (Italy) rapid, shallow landslides often cause casualties and severe damage. Aimed at contributing to the characterisation of the source areas of rapid, shallow landslides, this paper deals with the geotechnical parameterisation of the mainly involved soil by means of dynamic penetration tests. The source areas are usually located in difficult access sites, where boring and undisturbed sampling are very hard and onerous. Therefore, the results of 177 dynamic penetration tests were analysed, including dynamic probing (DP) tests and standard penetration tests (SPT). The results of these tests were related to relative density D _r and friction angle Φ′ of the soil by means of empirical equations. The distribution and variability of these parameters were analysed and related to soil type, test type and probing depth. The D _r and Φ′ values coming from the DP and SPT tests were found to be comparable. The Φ′ values coming from DP tests and direct shear tests showed an acceptable correlation, confirming the utility of the DP tests. The DP test can thus be an effective tool in the estimation of the properties of potentially unstable soil slope covers.     

Landslide dams triggered by the Wenchuan Earthquake,Sichuan Province,south west China

At 14:28 (Beijing time) on 12 May 2008, the catastrophic Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake occurred just west of the Sichuan basin, China, causing severe damage and numerous casualties. It also triggered a large number of landslides, rock avalanches, debris flows etc. Some of the landslides formed natural dams in the rivers, with the potential secondary hazard of subsequent flooding. Through the interpretation of a series of aerial photographs and satellite images, 256 landslide dams were identified, although because of limited access, relatively detailed data were available for only 32. The paper presents statistical analyzes of the distribution, classification, characteristics, and hazard evaluation of these 32 dams. A case study of the 2.04 × 10⁷ m³ Tangjiashan landslide dam and the emergency mitigation measures undertaken is discussed.     

汶川大地震灾害与灾区重建的岩土工程问题

 2008年5月12日14：28四川省西部龙门山山区发生Ms = 8.0级强震。地震是由龙门山中央断裂逆冲兼走滑产生的,沿300 km长的断裂带造成大量的山体崩塌、滑坡,城镇与村庄房屋坍塌不计其数,厂矿与交通设施严重毁损,并造成大量的人员伤亡。截至7月11日12时,地震已造成69 197人遇难、18 341人失踪、374 176人受伤。基于震后灾区的第一手调查资料,在简介龙门山地质条件与断裂构造格局的基础上,从工程角度对地震产生的震害类型和分布,及其与断裂构造的关系等进行初步的总结和归纳,提出灾区重建工作中面临的主要岩土工程问题,以期为灾后重建和相关科研工作提供参考。     

Les dépôts morainiques holocènes de la zone axiale pyrénéenne: approche déterministe de leur instabilitéà Verdun sur Ariège, (Pyrénées centrales, France)

This paper reports a study of the historic instability of the till deposits in an area of the central Pyrenees between France and Spain upslope of the town of Verdun. The object of the work was to create a model based on the geomorphological and geological mapping of landslides and a geotechnical survey of the instability of the whole of the mountainous slopes of the Domanial Verdun area. The detailed mapping allows the historic landslides to be distinguished from the more recent/active movements which involve volumes of 100,000 to 400,000?m³ of material. In addition, it was possible to assess the areal percentage of the actively slipping zones (5%) compared to the historic slide zones (12%) and the stable areas (78%). Following the European classification, two types of slides were identified in the Verdun study area: (1) historic rotational slides and (2) active translational slides located in the Verdun area at between 1000 and 1250?m altitude. The stability was calculated using the classic "method of slices", subdividing the slipped zone into vertical slices along a suitable cross section. The so-called factor of safety (F) was determined by dividing the moments of resisting forces (M_R) by the moments of driving forces (M_D). The state of limiting equilibrium has a "factor of safety" of 1. The physical parameters of the till deposits of Verdun were established as: unit weight γ=24.9?kN/m³ (calculated using the percentage of gneissic blocks contained in the tills) and porosity n=0.24. The results of 15 triaxial tests in a gravelly sand matrix were plotted in a Lambe diagram following a linear regression model [x=(σ₁+σ₃)/2 and y=(σ₁–σ₃)/2 with sin?φ′ =tan?θ]. From this the friction angle φ′=33°±3 and c′=45±5?kPa were established. The factor of safety calculated for the moraine deposits in the historic slides was 1.44 without water (Hw=0). With a height of water of 7?m, representing 85% of the till thickness, this was reduced to F=1. To achieve a factor of safety of 1.3, the maximum water level within the till should not exceed 2.5?m, representing 65% of the till thickness. Similarly, the factor of safety was calculated for the active slides of another area (shown as section 4 in Fig.?3 in the paper). Using slice number 9 from the middle of the slide, the factor of safety was 1.08 when the height of the water was taken as 90% of the till thickness. This high calculated factor of safety for the height of water is consistent with the slow movement of the actual slides. However, a lower internal cohesion of the till deposits or the presence of a weathered zone would decrease the factor of safety from 1 to 0.8. It is also possible that other parameters, such as the regional seismic activity, could have been sufficient to initiate movement (F<1) during the last 50?years. It is of note that the map of seismic activity shows that more than a 100 earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 3 have occurred in the central Pyrenees since 1660. The paper emphasises the importance of high-quality mapping which identifies and classifies areas of historic and recent instability. From this, a single geotechnical model to calculate the stability can be established. The level of the water is shown to be the critical parameter and of more significance than the variations in the effective friction angle, which itself is more important than variations in the effective cohesion. With this information it is possible to determine those areas where some form of stabilisation and/or drainage of the till deposits is necessary.     

黄土滑坡典型工程地质问题分析

黄土滑坡是西北地区最为严重的地质灾害。随着西部经济的发展及工程活动的加强,黄土滑坡成为近年工程地质研究的热点问题。黄土滑坡后缘地裂缝发育,具有高陡的后壁以及演化特征。泾阳南塬自1976年大面积农业灌溉以来,发生了27处50余起黄土层内滑坡。2005年～2007年6月,对南塬黄土滑坡进行了多次现场调查和滑坡特征测量,获得了详实的野外资料。在现场工作的基础上,初步分析了地下水位上升诱发高速远程滑坡机制、塬边地裂缝成因机制、滑坡高陡后壁成因机制及其稳定性评价方法及黄土滑坡演化机制与演化平衡等当前黄土滑坡研究亟待解决的工程地质问题。     

Geological characteristics of landslides triggered by the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake in Mt. Aso volcano,Japan

On 16 April 2016, a M_w 7.0 earthquake occurred in Kumamoto city, Japan. The main shock induced two large landslides, namely the Aso Bridge landslide and the Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide. Their topographical and geological conditions and motion features were investigated by using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and portable dynamic cone penetration tests (PPTs). The Aso Bridge landslide lies between elevations of 385 m and 725 m, with a total estimated volume of about 1,980,000 m³. The main body is composed of cohesive soil with lapilli and block. The Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide lies on a slope between 483 m to 582 m, and the total volume is about 81,000 m³, with an average thickness of 4.5 m. The main body is composed of Kusasenrigahama volcanic pumice tephra beds. The material compositions and deposits of both landslides have low cohesion and easily induced shear failure for the two landslides. The sliding distance of the Aso Bridge landslide was long, the sliding direction almost unchanged from the scarp to the toe, and the sliding speed was rapid. The sliding distance of the Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide, however, was short, the sliding direction changed from the N-direction at the scarp to the NW-direction at the toe, and the sliding speed was slow.

     

Geo-environmental issues induced by the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake and tsunami

The 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011, caused devastating geotechnical and geo-environmental issues mainly in the coastal area of the Tohoku and North-Kanto Regions, Japan. As a result of the earthquake and subsequent tsunami, approximately 23,000 Gg (23,000,000 t) of disaster debris was generated, with more than 12 million m³ of tsunami deposits left in the flooded area. The geotechnical utilization of the soil fraction in the disaster debris and tsunami deposits has presented a huge challenge to geotechnical engineers since (1) the clearance of debris and tsunami deposits is an urgent task which must be completed within a few years and (2) although a large amount of waste-mixed soil can be used in the construction of new embankments and levees to protect the coast from future tsunamis, their geotechnical properties have temporal and spatial variations. This paper summarizes the current status on the generation, clearance, and treatment and utilization of disaster debris and tsunami deposits from geotechnical and geo-environmental viewpoints. In addition, the environmental monitoring data on soil and groundwater quality conducted over the affected area is briefly reviewed. The results of several wide-area monitoring efforts conducted by different organizations indicate that no significant soil or groundwater contamination has occurred. However, the localized contamination near industrial plants where toxic chemicals leaked due to the earthquake and tsunami needs to be carefully taken into consideration during future revival and redevelopment works. Another serious geo-environmental issue is the management of the radioactive contamination of surface soils caused by the accident at the Fukushima First Nuclear Power Plant. This paper summarizes the distributions and expected behaviours of radioactive Caesium in soils and groundwater, and outlines the possible remediation options for dealing with this contamination.     

Back analysis of an ancient rockslide at Lake Fundudzi,Limpopo Province,South Africa

A massive rockslide occurred in the Soutpansberg Mountains of the Limpopo Province ~20,000 years ago that blocked the course of the eastern flowing Mutale River forming Lake Fundudzi, which is the only known true inland lake in South Africa. The landslide occurred in the northwestward dipping and highly jointed Fundudzi Formation of the Soutpansberg Group. The failed slope was observed to be a homogenous jointed sandstone rock slope which is quartzitic in places. Cluster analysis, which uses fuzzy clustering in Rocscience Dips, revealed three major joint sets (JS1, S0 and JS3) in the rock mass with an average dip and dip direction of 85°/237°, 15°/283° and 73°/157°, respectively. The main failure plane best correlated with JS3, which dips towards the lake. The kinematic analysis also revealed that the mechanism of failure was planar which is in agreement with site observations. The strong rock material classification of the sandstone from a laboratory index and mechanical tests was one of the indicators that failure could have been mostly structurally controlled. The technique of back-analysis was employed using RocPlane in order to investigate the geotechnical conditions that may have resulted in failure. The results obtained from the sensitivity analysis in RocPlane showed that the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) followed by the residual basic friction angle (? _r) were the main influential shear strength parameters on the factor of safety, F, as opposed to the joint wall compressive strength (JCS) which has very little impact on F for the range of values considered. Results from back-analysis show a range of possible combinations of JRC and ? _r values under different groundwater and seismic conditions. Whilst the groundwater shows more impact than the seismic coefficient, the field evidence points to seismic activity as a more plausible trigger than groundwater. This study shows the usefulness of back-analysis techniques in assessing various conditions of failure that may have resulted in ancient rockslides. Although it may not result in a unique set of geotechnical parameters that may have resulted in failure, it, however, gives an insight into probable causes of failure and, thus, can be useful in mitigation of future failures.