Nostalgia, Community and New Housing Developments: A Critique of New Urbanism Incorporating a New Zealand Perspective

We set out the arguments for and against the concepts and practices of new urbanism and neo-traditionalism that have emerged in the USA and discuss them in the context of Christchurch, New Zealand. Our interpretation of the similarities between new residential neighbourhoods in Christchurch and the aesthetic and community values inherent in new urbanism leads us to the conclusion that in New Zealand, at least, new urbanism is primarily a form of rhetoric designed to sell houses profitably rather than a community development project based on new forms of housing. In support of this perspective we use data from our research in Christchurch to demonstrate how contemporary social life sits awkwardly with the concepts of community and traditionalism associated with new urbanism. We focus on the ways in which the creation of community in new urbanism rests on socio-economic homogeneity rather than diversity; homogeneity created by the people who design, build, regulate and sell housing and reinforced by the cost and appearance of the houses in new neighbourhoods.     

Temporary urbanism and urban sustainability after a natural disaster: transitional community-initiated open spaces in Christchurch,New Zealand

Temporary uses of vacant urban spaces are usually not foreseen in conventional urban planning and have often been linked to economic or political disturbances. In New Zealand, Christchurch’s vacant spaces came into existence after the city was hit by several devastating earthquakes in 2010 and 2011. Parallel to the ‘official’ rebuild discourse, temporary uses have emerged on vacant post-earthquake sites including community gardens, urban agriculture, art installations, event venues, eateries and cafés, and pocket parks. Based on the review and analysis of exemplary transitional community-initiated open spaces and correlated literature, the paper looks at how the post-disaster urban context in Christchurch has influenced particular aspects of temporary urbanism in comparison with case studies in non-disaster environments. By focusing on the anticipated benefits of community-initiated open spaces, the paper discusses the relevance of temporary uses of vacant urban spaces for urban sustainability in relationship to concepts of community resilience and raises questions about possible long-term values.     

Urban Intensification in Auckland,New Zealand: A Challenge for New Urbanism

Medium Density Housing (MDH) is a relatively new form of housing in New Zealand where the standalone house on a separate lot has traditionally been revered. This paper reports on the findings of a research project on Ambrico Place, a major MDH initiative in Waitakere City, one of four cities in the Auckland metropolitan area. This case study explores the development of a site that has been significantly influenced by new urbanist principles. The paper provides an overview of the historical and political context influencing the take up of MDH in Auckland. It briefly reviews theory and principles arising from new urbanist movements then describes the Ambrico Place Research Project. Next, it explores three interrelated issues, relevant to new urbanism, that arose from the research; the quality of the built environment, community and social interaction, and transport patterns of MDH residents. Implications for planning are identified. Finally, three problems are noted: the uncritical and incoherent implementation of new urbanist principles; the contradiction between the drives for both diversity and homogeneity in the built environment; and the tensions arising from the application of an environmental effects-based approach to planning in an urban setting.     

New urbanism developments in Canada: a survey

In the summer of 2006, researchers surveyed Canadian “new urbanism” projects by reviewing literature and websites, examining municipal and government documentation, and contacting local authorities. The study found that many of the projects that began as “new urbanist” changed during development, eventually becoming more conventional in character. Only one development project reached build‐out as a complete new urbanism community by its targeted date. Although new urbanism principles are increasingly integrated into planning principles across Canada, full‐fledged new urbanism developments prove surprisingly rare in the market. The survey indicated that new urbanism projects cluster in particular parts of the country: generally the areas growing most quickly around Toronto, Vancouver, and Calgary. New urbanism communities have been successful in achieving a mix of housing types, high design standards, attractive open space systems, and a walkable environment. They have had less success in establishing viable commercial districts, increasing urban densities, providing affordable housing, or reducing reliance on automobiles. While new urbanism and smart growth principles are affecting planning ideology, development practice may prove resistant to transformation.     

The Status Of Lone And Partnered Women Seeking State Housing Assistance In Two New Zealand Cities

Women householders living alone or with children have been identified as one of a number of marginalised groups within the housing markets of Western cities. An extensive literature suggests that many such women are likely to experience discrimination, poverty and inadequate housing. In this paper we review the status of lone women parents in New Zealand housing policy as a prelude to reporting on the housing experiences of a sample of applicants seeking state housing assistance in Auckland and Christchurch. The samples, drawn from the waiting lists of the (former) Housing Corporation of New Zealand (1989-90), included both women with partners (n=50) and women living alone or with children (n=119). The lone women were slightly poorer, they had less access to private transport, and they reported higher levels of residential mobility. However, these women reported that the physical condition of their housing was significantly better, and characteristics of the neighbourhood such as safety and proximity to friends were more important influences on their housing satisfaction than for partnered women. We conclude that lone women appear to make more demands on their neighbourhood, and more often seek housing assistance from the state for reasons of refuge than is the case for partnered women.     

Changing places: New Zealand Houses by Winkler & Eisenhofer 1958 to 1969

The Austrian-born architects Erwin Winkler and Fritz Eisenhofer immigrated to New Zealand during the 1950s. After working at the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works, they established a joint architectural practice in 1958 when the growing New Zealand economy and governmental efforts, such as the Group Housing Scheme, increased the building of homes. At the same time the repetitive appearance of English Cottage Style state houses, that had been built in reaction to a severe housing shortage after the Second World War, led to a demand for architecturally designed homes. In reaction to this,Winkler & Eisenhofer established a reputation as a non-conformist practice in creating homes that not only offered modern open-plan living, but also featured unusual features, murals or sculptures. After New Zealand had overcome the housing shortage by the early 1960s, and during an economic upsurge, the practice received commissions from wealthy clients and was no longer competing with builders who offered standardised homes. Winkler & Eisenhofer now oriented their houses towards contemporary American precedents created for a clientele who wished their homes to reflect individuality, internationality and modernity. A number of architectural practices sought at the same time to develop a distinct New Zealand architectural idiom. This paper investigates how the careers of Winkler & Eisenhofer developed at a time when the demand for homes that were designed to overcome a housing shortage, shifted to a demand for modern houses that reflected a newly developing life-style. Within the complex discourse on architectural modernism in New Zealand, Winkler & Eisenhofer's houses were created outside of the ongoing search for a distinct New Zealand style.     

The geography of rental housing and the restructuring of housing assistance in New Zealand

In 1993 major reforms to the delivery of housing assistance in New Zealand came into effect. These included the introduction of an Accommodation Supplement to provide income assistance for housing, the establishment of Housing New Zealand Limited to market former state houses and the setting up of the Ministry of Housing to provide policy advice. These reforms have replaced an explicitly spatial public policy based on the provision of housing stock in particular locations with an apparently aspatial housing policy based on income supplements,. The former state housing construction and allocation programme, however, has generated residential location patterns which continue to constrain and predetermine the choices made by those contemporary households who now draw income supplements. Far from spatially diffusing rental demand, these recent housing reforms show every sign of further concentrating demand and supply of low rental housing and reinforcing the inherited, highly segmented social geography of the New Zealand city.     

Ethnic Neighbourhoods in Auckland,New Zealand

Using the 2006 New Zealand Census data, we examine the spatial clustering of the four largest ethnic minority groups—Chinese, Indian, Māori and Samoan—in Auckland. To guide our analysis, we employ three theoretical models—the immigrant enclave, ethnic community and place stratification models—that have helped explain the residential patterns of ethnic minority groups in immigrant destination countries. The results of spatial autocorrelation analysis show that all four ethnic minority groups form ethnic neighbourhoods. Indian neighbourhoods are more reflective of the immigrant enclave model as these neighbourhoods are socio-economically impoverished and have a higher percentage of foreign born. On the other hand, Chinese neighbourhoods are better explained by the ethnic community model, which describes an ethnic neighbourhood based more on preference than economic necessity. While the overall findings conform to patterns found in other countries, the severely socially deprived characteristics of Samoan and Māori neighbourhoods are reflective of the place stratification model.     

Transforming South Africa’s low-income housing projects through backyard dwellings: intersections with households and the state in Alexandra, Johannesburg

South Africa’s ‘housing programme’ transfers a fully-funded serviced site and house to qualifying beneficiaries with aims of progressively addressing poverty through homeownership. Despite delivering close to 3 million houses since 1994, informal housing persists, featuring even in some of these new neighbourhoods. This paper focuses on the intersection between a particular mode of informal housing, backyard dwellings, and state-subsidised low-income housing projects. Backyard dwellings arguably contradict state housing objectives by symbolising informality and disorder; a symptom of inadequacy that the housing programme strives to overcome. We consider first the views and experiences of landlords (owners of state-subsided houses) and tenants (occupiers of privately-provided backyard dwellings) in a section of Alexandra, Johannesburg. We then reflect on the potential of backyard accommodation within post-apartheid housing delivery, arguing that despite challenges, the phenomenon of planned, state-led infrastructure generating secondary accommodation represents an opportunity rather than an example of failed modernity. South Africa’s backyard dwellings resonate with similar forms of self-funded and managed rental stock across the global South. As a quick, flexible and regenerative housing asset, cumulative acceptance of such rental markets is necessary—along with viewing the driving actors as astute innovators in shelter and livelihood provision.     

The Spatial Patterning of Alcohol Outlets in Post-Disaster Christchurch,New Zealand: Practical and Policy Implications

Natural disasters greatly impact the environment of affected societies with often unknown consequences. In this study we examine the impact that the Canterbury Earthquakes of 2010–2011 had on the distribution of alcohol outlets in Christchurch, New Zealand. Specifically, we compare the distribution of both on-site and off-site alcohol outlets pre- (December 2009) and post-earthquake (December 2014) and use spatial regression models to identify whether any neighbourhood-level factors predict the observed redistributions. Overall, the number of alcohol outlets decreased by almost 13% after the Canterbury Earthquakes. However, we found a moderate increase in the clustering of both outlet types of outlets in the post-quake period. Increases in rates of both on-site and off-site alcohol outlets in neighbourhoods were positively associated with the percentage of residents who resided in their neighbourhood < 5 years and with neighbourhood crime rate change, while negative associations were found with percentage population aged between 15 and 29 years. The results suggest that the changing spatial distribution of alcohol outlets in Christchurch was not random but driven, in part, by the emergent demographic composition of neighbourhoods. The significant practical and policy implications of a redistribution of alcohol outlets are outlined providing a tangible link between empirical research and practice in an urban environment plagued with post-disaster spatial and social uncertainties.     

Housing quality and resilience in New Zealand

There is extensive research on the negative health impacts of poor housing quality. However, little is known about the potential health benefits of high-quality housing in poor neighbourhoods. Neighbourhoods with unexpectedly good health outcomes despite high levels of deprivation have been deemed resilient places and housing quality in these areas may be a contributor to this resilience. This study aimed to evaluate whether an indicator of neighbourhood housing quality was associated with a previously quantified resilience index (RINZ) in New Zealand. It was found that areas with high housing quality tended to have higher median income, greater proportions of partnered people and shorter-term residents, and very low proportions of Māori. A positive association was found between housing quality and resilience, after adjustment for deprivation. There was no indication of differences by heterogeneity in housing quality within the aggregate unit of analysis. These findings pose the hypothesis that improving housing quality in similarly deprived areas that have poor health outcomes could potentially boost health. To extend this understanding, further development of a more sophisticated housing quality indicator is recommended.     

New Urbanism's Role in Inner-city Neighborhood Revitalization

The new urbanism has become an increasingly popular development strategy for outlying greenfield sites. Recently, the Congress for the New Urbanism, the formal arm of the movement, began emphasizing urban infill and revitalization. This paper explores the public sector's application of the new urbanism through planning and regulatory tools intended to foster inner-city revitalization. Specifically, it examines a local variation of the new urbanism and its implementation within a broader framework of neighborhood revitalization that seeks to balance economic development, smart growth and equity goals to realize the ideal of the just city. Assessing over 12 years of experience in Orlando, Florida, this study demonstrates the difficulty of fully implementing the new urbanism in such projects, particularly in lower-income neighborhoods, and inherent conflicts when design solutions, economic development and housing goals are not mutually supportive.     

Roof-top wind turbines for microgeneration in urban houses in New Zealand

Microgeneration using roof-top wind turbines is at present not common in New Zealand. It is, however, being trialled by the electricity network company, Vector, in a range of urban locations. Limitations of size mean roof-top wind turbines may not satisfy the total energy requirement of New Zealand houses. Ensuring structural stability and complying with stringent noise standards in New Zealand are further issues. In addition, roof-top turbines may be inefficient in terms of net energy and carbon emissions, performance indicators that are fundamental for the adoption of this technology. This paper considers the feasibility of using roof-top wind turbines in urban houses in New Zealand and, using life cycle assessment, evaluates the net energy and carbon emissions associated with their use. The results indicate that the electricity-generating potential of centralised wind farms in New Zealand using large turbines is 11.3-7 times the generating potential of roof-top turbines mounted on urban houses. In spite of this the roof-top turbines that are currently being trialled, could have the potential to reduce the energy and carbon intensity of New Zealand electricity by 81% and 26%, respectively.     

Encountering the Multiplicity of Community in Planning and Designing New Neighbourhoods

In contrast to recent understandings of community beyond place, urban partnerships of developers and policymakers focus on creating place-based communities in new neighbourhoods such as master-planned housing estates. These efforts are critiqued for ignoring the multiple ways community is experienced in everyday life as physical places take precedence over social relations and processes. Drawing on the example of a master-planned community (MPC) in Australia, this article explores some of the complexities involved in attempting to create community in these and other new neighbourhoods by comparing conceptualisations of community depicted in marketing materials with future residents' expectations and lived experience. Although some notions of community portrayed in the marketing of the estate resonated with future residents' expectations, their everyday experiences of community were broad and varied, and not confined to one particular place. In concluding, the article suggests there is greater scope for the multiplicity of community to be incorporated in the planning and design of MPCs. Specifically, policymakers could make more of partnerships with developers to advocate for the acknowledgement and inclusion of broader experiences of community in everyday life.     

新式住宅大地景观

艾许利·孟得：这同样是一件在概念上令人留下深刻印象的设计作品,但不幸的是没能在竞赛中得到一个更高的名次。对环境的理解以及现有景观如何同居住区开发相联系做得非常好．与此同时．建筑同景观、社区空间的结合方式可以被视为嵌入山坡的一个流动性整体。     

Housing liquidation and financial adequacy of retirees in New Zealand

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of housing on financial adequacy of New Zealand retirees using the Survey of Family, Income, and Employment (SoFIE) data for the period 2002–2009. We examine the differential effect of housing liquidation options, rent imputation and asset liquidity on financial adequacy. We report evidence of financial adequacy variation across five housing liquidation options and this is influenced by rent imputation. The results show that non-homeowners are less financially adequate than homeowners. We find that Māori, renters and individuals living in multi-dwelling occupancies have much lower levels of financial adequacy. Individuals of Pākehā or Asian ethnicity, homeowners and those living alone benefit more from imputed rent derived through home ownership. Our study highlights the need for the New Zealand government to address the lack of suitable public housing, rising housing and rental prices and mandate compulsory contributory retirement savings plans.     

New housing construction in Phoenix: Evidence of “new suburbanism”?

Stereotypical images of suburbs as homogeneous, residential neighborhoods comprised of single-family houses on individual lots have become synonymous with sprawl. Discourses on smart growth, new urbanism, and sustainability promote increasing residential density because housing is such a large part of the built environment. Recent literature has emphasized the potential for denser residential development at the urban fringe contesting the idea of monotonically decreasing density gradients that underpin traditional location models. Analysis of new housing completions between 1990 and 2005 in rapidly-growing metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, examined changes in the form and location of new housing constructed in 2000–2005 compared to the prior decade, to identify patterns of densification. Features included rapid decentralization of multiple-family home construction, and the emergence of a wide range of multiple-family housing forms at the fringe, including large apartment complexes in accessible freeway locations, high-end condominium developments in high-amenity areas, and subsidized apartments in less-prestigious areas. Densification no longer equates to urban infill, but takes many forms and occurs all over the metropolitan region, especially the urban fringe where “new suburbanism” may be emerging in response to the “sustainability turn” in contemporary planning.     

新西兰公共住房实践:创新与启示

在公共住房实践中,美国、香港和新加坡等地的经验作为我国的借鉴模范已经很多年,而拥有将近100 年公共住房实践经验的新西兰却很少被关注。新西兰房屋署协同政府、慈善机构、私人部门组织一起在整个国家范围内提供公共住房和住房援助。事实上,新西兰在公共住房实践中通过住房统计指标来构建体系框架,在很多方面有独到之处。详细阐述新西兰的公共住房体系整体框架,包括保障人群范围、保障维度和保障效果;其次,介绍新西兰在管理方面如何运用统计数据和报告来指导政策制定;并通过与我国住房保障的比较,提出可行性政策建议。     

Public space and recovery: learning from post-earthquake Christchurch

How might the urban structure and public space of Christchurch change as a result of the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes? This paper will look at council and community led post-earthquake urban space projects in Christchurch, New Zealand, to investigate the potential reconfiguration of urban public space and structure and the balance of top-down and bottom-up design processes for the delivery of these projects. This will be achieved by comparing the performance of the urban public space and structure of the city during the post-earthquake emergency and recovery phases, with a view to understanding the contribution that these elements can make to the resilience of Christchurch. The paper will argue that Christchurch’s nineteenth century urban structure served the population well during the emergency phases of the disaster and that post-earthquake community-led initiatives model innovative capabilities which may enhance urban design practice in the future.     

新民居建设影响因素分析

新农村建设是国家解决＂三农＂问题的重要途径之一,而新民居建设作为改善农民居住条件的重要措施之一,受到各级政府的高度重视。文章主要从农民的角度研究新民居建设的影响因素,建立农民参与新民居建设影响因素的logistic模型,找出农民参与新民居建设意愿的主观及客观因素,并提出相应对策建议。