THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM IN THE SANDINO FOREARC BASIN, OFFSHORE WESTERN NICARAGUA

The underexplored Sandino Basin (Nicaragua Basin/Trough) is located within the forearc area of western Nicaragua and NW Costa Rica. Exploration activity since 2004 has focussed on the onshore sector of the basin, and has included the first drilling campaign for over 30 years. Recent 2D basin modelling of the offshore sector together with organic geochemical studies has attempted to reassess the basin's petroleum potential. Geochemical data from the deepest offshore well indicate that Middle Eocene to Lower Oligocene sediments of the Brito Formation, as well as Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene sediments of the Masachapa Formation, may have source rock potential. A third and perhaps more significant potential source rock interval is associated with the Lower Cretaceous black shales of the Loma Chumico Formation, which has been studied in the adjacent forearc area in NW Costa Rica (Tempisque Basin) and is inferred to be present in the Sandino Basin.
The thermal history of the forearc basin is controlled by the low basal heat flow (39 mW/m²). 2D modelling has shown that the Sandino Basin is thermally mature, resulting in the potential for hydrocarbon generation in organic-rich intervals in the Brito and Masachapa Formations. A petroleum-generating "kitchen" has tentatively been identified on a NE-SW seismic section which crosses the basin. Modelling suggests that this kitchen has been active from the Late Eocene until the present day, and that the main phases of petroleum generation in general coincide with phases of maximum subsidence in the Late Eocene, Late Oligocene and Plio-Pleistocene. Hydrocarbon migration most probably occurred from the deep basin towards the flanks. Significant volumes of petroleum may have been lost prior to the Late Miocene before the formation of a coastal flexure which can be recognised in the NE of the seismic profile.     

IN‐RESERVOIR FRACTIONATION AND THE ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND CONDENSATES IN THE SURMA BASIN,NE BANGLADESH

Petroleum in the Surma basin, NE Bangladesh (part of the Bengal Basin) ranges from waxy crude oils to condensates. The origin and source rocks of these hydrocarbons were investigated based on the distributions of saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons in 20 oil samples from seven oil and gas fields. The relative compositions of pristane, phytane and adjacent n‐alkanes suggest that the source rock was deposited in a non‐marine setting. The abundance and similar distribution of biphenyls, cadalene and bicadinanes in most of the crude oils and condensates indicates a significant supply of higher‐plant derived organic matter to the source rocks. Maturity levels of the crude oils and condensates from the Surma basin correspond to calculated vitrinite reflectance (R_c) values of 1.0–1.3%, indicating hydrocarbon expulsion from the source rock at a comparatively high maturity level. The R_c values of oils from the Titas field in the southern margin of the Surma basin are relatively low (0.8–1.0%). Some oils were severely biodegraded. The similar distribution of diamondoid hydrocarbons in both biodegraded and non‐biodegraded oils indicated similar types of source rocks and similar maturity levels to those of oils from the Surma basin. The Oligocene Jenam Shale and/or underlying non‐marine deposits located at greater depths may be potential source rocks. The diversity of the petroleum in the Surma basin was likely due to evaporative fractionation, resulting in residual waxy oils and lighter condensates which subsequently underwent tertiary migration and re‐accumulation. Evaporative fractionation due to modification of the reservoir structure occurred during and after the Pliocene, when large‐scale tectonic deformation occurred in and around the Bengal Basin.     

南黄海盆地前第三系油气地质特征

南黄海盆地前第三系是中国近海潜在的油气勘探领域之一。文章主要采用地质类比方法，从常规的石油地质综合分析入手，通过对南黄海盆地前第三系石油地质条件的综合研究，结合已有勘探成果，分析认为南黄海盆地前第三系发育多套有油气潜力的生储盖组合，具备形成大型油气藏的石油地质条件；该盆地经历了多次构造运动的叠加改造，其中遭受构造运动破坏比较弱的南黄海盆地中部隆起和勿南沙隆起是潜在的油气勘探目标。     

从渤海湾盆地海陆对比看渤海海域天然气勘探前景

渤海湾盆地包括陆区和海域 (渤海海域 )两部分。油气勘探揭示 ,渤海湾盆地以产油为主 ,目前陆区所发现的气藏多为小型气藏 ,单个气藏的储量一般低于 5 0亿 m3,并以伴生气为主 ,4个储量较大的气田 (探明储量超过10 0亿 m3)主要为煤型气或高—过成熟气。渤海海域在油气勘探过程中也不断有气田发现 ,其中 JZ2 0 - 2气田已投入开发。与周缘陆区相比 ,海域天然气藏形成条件优越 ,其原因在于 :(1)自渐新世以来 ,整个渤海湾盆地的沉积中心逐渐向海域迁移 ,致使海域第三系沉积巨厚 (最大厚度超过万米 ) ;(2 )海域处于地幔隆起的核心地带 ,大地热流值较周缘陆区高 ;(3)海域比周缘陆区多一套东营组下段烃源岩 ,其生气能力较强 ;(4 )海域盖层条件比周缘陆区好 (海域第三系发育两套区域盖层 )。据近期资源评价结果 ,海域天然气资源量为 12 2 93亿 m3,但目前探明程度很低 ,随着勘探程度的不断提高 ,相信海域将会有更多、更大的气藏被发现     

毛里塔尼亚海岸盆地陆上勘探潜力评价

毛里塔尼亚海岸盆地位于非洲西部大西洋东岸，是典型的中新生代被动大陆边缘盆地。近年来海上已经发现2个油田，但在陆上尚无发现。通过对盆地烃源岩、储盖层、运移条件及圈闭等成藏地质条件的分析，对盆地陆上区域油气资源与勘探潜力进行了探讨。研究区内源岩生烃能力有限，可能的油气资源主要来自于西部海域成熟源岩。结合油气运移条件，认为本区具备一定的勘探潜力。     

A new look at the components of the petroleum system of the South Caspian Basin

Detailed knowledge of the petroleum systems of mature petroleum provinces is often lacking. This has often resulted from the early discovery of most of these provinces' reserves. The South Caspian basin represents one such province. The “modern” era of petroleum exploration in the South Caspian began more than 100 years ago. Even with this long history several aspects of the petroleum system have remained largely speculation. Among the key questions are:

• What is the primary hydrocarbon source for the region?

• Where and when has hydrocarbon generation taken place?

• Can exploration be extended beyond known stratigraphic and areal limits?

Recent integrated geologic and geochemical studies have attempted to answer these and other questions for the petroleum system of the South Caspian basin. These studies attempted to overcome prior problems associated with limited sample availability, severity of surface weathering, data quality and completeness. This study confirmed the Maykop Suite as the primary oil source, but restricted its stratigraphic distribution. Organic carbon content within the Maykop ranged upward to 14.28 wt.%, with hydrocarbon generation potentials (S₂) approaching 75 mg HC/g rock. Source rock deposition was cyclic and included both oil- and gas-prone episodes. Geochemically, the region's oils are highly variable as a result of their complex and variable migration and alteration histories rather than their derivation from multiple source rock units. The oils display similar molecular and isotopic compositions to the extracted Maykop samples confirming their genetic relationship. The range in carbon isotope values reflects secular changes within the Maykop Suite source. Unlike some earlier studies, this study showed that all of the oils were generated within the conventional “oil-window” (R_o≈0.9–1.0%). This places the source system at depths in excess of 5 km and emphasizes the role that vertical migration played in the development of the basin's hydrocarbon accumulations. There is evidence that migration was episodic, possibly related to punctuated generation or the opening of conduits through the activity of mud diapirs. Model results also suggest that the rapid Plio–Pleistocene subsidence and sedimentation were the primary controls on hydrocarbon generation.These and other geochemical investigations confirm the potential for the extension of the known petroleum system beyond its current stratigraphic and areal limits.     

DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCE ROCKS AND MATURITY MODELLING IN THE NORTHERN CENOZOIC SONG HONG BASIN (GULF OF TONKIN), VIETNAM

The northern offshore part of the Cenozoic Song Hong Basin in the Gulf of Tonkin (East Vietnam Sea) is at an early stage of exploration with only a few wells drilled. Oil to source rock correlation indicates that coals are responsible for the sub‐commercial oil and gas accumulations in sandstones in two of the four wells which have been drilled on faulted anticlines and flower structures. The wells are located in a narrow, structurally inverted zone with a thick predominantly deltaic Miocene succession between the Song Chay and Vinh Ninh/Song Lo fault zones. These faults are splays belonging to the offshore extension of the Red River Fault Zone. Access to a database of 3,500 km of 2D seismic data has allowed a detailed and consistent break‐down of the geological record of the northern part of the basin into chronostratigraphic events which were used as inputs to model the hydrocarbon generation history. In addition, seismic facies mapping, using the internal reflection characteristics of selected seismic sequences, has been applied to predict the lateral distribution of source rock intervals. The results based on Yükler ID basin modelling are presented as profiles and maturity maps. The robustness of the results are analysed by testing different heat flow scenarios and by transfer of the model concept to IES Petromod software to obtain a more acceptable temperature history reconstruction using the Easy%R₀ algorithm. Miocene coals in the wells located in the inverted zone between the fault splays are present in separate intervals. Seismic facies analysis suggests that the upper interval is of limited areal extent. The lower interval, of more widespread occurrence, is presently in the oil and condensate generating zones in deep synclines between inversion ridges. The Yükler modelling indicates, however, that the coaly source rock interval entered the main window prior to formation of traps as a result of Late Miocene inversion. Lacustrine mudstones, similar to the highly oil‐prone Oligocene mudstones and coals which are exposed in the Dong Ho area at the northern margin of the Song Hong Basin and on Bach Long Vi Island in Gulf of Tonkin, are interpreted to be preserved in a system of undrilled NW–SE Paleogene half‐grabens NE of the Song Lo Fault Zone. This is based on the presence of intervals with distinct, continuous, high reflection seismic amplitudes. Considerable overlap exists between the shale‐prone seismic facies and the modelled extent of the present‐day oil and condensate generating zones, suggesting that active source kitchens also exist in this part of the basin. Recently reported oil in a well located onshore (BIO‐STB‐IX) at the margin of the basin, which is sourced mainly from “Dong Ho type” lacustrine mudstones supports the presence of an additional Paleogene sourced petroleum system.     

GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THERMAL MATURITY OF OILS FROM THE THRACE BASIN (WESTERN TURKEY) AND WESTERN TURKMENISTAN

Crude oils in the Thrace Basin (western Turkey) and western Turkmenistan are believed to have been generated by a common Oligocene siliciclastic source rock. This widespread source rock extends over the area between western Turkey and the eastern South Caspian Basin. Oils from three Eocene reservoirs in the Thrace Basin and from four Pliocene reservoirs onshore western Turkmenistan were analyzed to investigate and compare their source-rock characteristics. In order to understand controls on the timing of hydrocarbon generation and source-rock maturation in both basins, the results of quantitative basin modelling were compared with those of geochemical analyses.
The results indicate that all the oil samples exhibit similar geochemical characteristics, such as IP13-IP20 acyclic isoprenoid, terpane, regular sterane, methylsterane, and dinosterane profiles. The low tricyclic/pentacyclic terpane ratios, low C₂₉ norhopane/C₃₀ hopane ratios and low diasterane/regular sterane ratios, and the presence of 18α (H)³⁰ oleanane and gammacerane further support a common source or source facies. Based on these observations, it is concluded that shallow-marine clastics of Oligocene age constitute source rocks in both basins.
The oils are of low maturity (Req(%) < 0.60), as indicated by their low ethylcholestane 20S/20S+20R, 17α (H), 21β (H)-bishomohopane 22S/22S+ 22R, and high 17β (H), 21α (H) moretane/17β (H), 21α (H) hopane ratios. However, oils from west Turkmenistan appear to be more mature than those from the Thrace Basin. This is consistent with their earlier generation, which resultedfrom the higher sedimentation rate and higher heating rate. Present-day reservoir depths and temperatures appear to play only a minor role in determining the oils' maturities.     

苏北盆地与南黄海盆地中——新生界成烃对比浅析

苏北与南黄海盆地是统一的中—新生代盆地。苏北盆地勘探成果丰富,地化甄别7套暗色泥岩仅4套对成藏有贡献,3套属拗陷广湖灰泥岩,分布广、质量稳定,岩电特征突出;1套属断陷湖的纯泥岩。重新厘定南黄海盆地烃源岩,确认南坳有5套烃源岩,套数比苏北多、厚度略大,北坳仅有1套;各套形成环境、岩电特征与苏北相似,但品质和稳定性略差。两盆地烃源岩都处低熟—成熟阶段,南黄海总体低于苏北,成熟可排烃源岩范围较苏北小。烃源岩质量、成熟度和排烃畅通度决定苏北各凹陷油气资源丰度,成熟度高、排烃畅通资源丰度高,相反则低;断陷沉积埋藏越发展,烃源岩越成熟,三垛期末为烃源岩成熟定型期。综合看,南黄海资源潜力不如苏北,南坳优于北坳。     

Petroleum Geochemistry of Lower Indus Basin,Pakistan: II. Oil-oil and Oil-source Rock Correlation

Nine crude oils and eight source rock samples from Cretaceous sequences, Lower Indus Basin have been characterized by means of diagnostic biomarker parameters in order to establish genetic liaison among them. The biomarker geochemistry indicators such as relative distribution of C₂₇-C₂₈-C₂₉ ααα-20R steranes, C₁₉ and C₂₃ tricyclic terpanes (TT), C₂₄ tetracyclic terpanes (TeT), hopanes distribution, steranes/hopanes ratio, presence of unidentified compound X (C₃₀ pentacyclic triterpane), and pristane (Pr) to phytane (Ph) ratio suggest that the crude oils contain predominantly terrigenous organic matter (OM). Based on these data, the analyzed crude oils from the Lower Indus Basin are genetically associated and could be classified into a single group. Geochemical correlation studies of crude oils and source rock sediments indicate that Lower Goru shales and Sembar could be the probable source rocks for the petroleum generated from Cretaceous strata, Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF POTENTIAL SOURCE ROCKS IN THE TERTIARY DINGQINGHU FORMATION,NIMA BASIN,CENTRAL TIBET

The Tertiary Nima Basin in central Tibet covers an area of some 3000 km² and is closely similar to the nearby Lunpola Basin from which commercial volumes of oil have been produced. In this paper, we report on the source rock potential of the Oligocene Dingqinghu Formation from measured outcrop sections on the southern and northern margins of the Nima Basin. In the south of the Nima Basin, potential source rocks in the Dingqinghu Formation comprise dark‐coloured marls with total organic carbon (TOC) contents of up to 4.3 wt % and Hydrogen Index values (HI) up to 849 mg HC/g TOC. The organic matter is mainly composed of amorphous sapropelinite corresponding to Type I kerogen. Rock‐Eval T_max (430–451°C) and vitrinite reflectance (R_r) (average R_r= 0.50%) show that the organic matter is marginally mature. The potential yield (up to 36.95 mg HC/g rock) and a plot of S2 versus TOC suggest that the marls have moderate to good source rock potential. They are interpreted to have been deposited in a stratified palaeolake with occasionally anoxic and hypersaline conditions, and the source of the organic matter was dominated by algae as indicated by biomarker analyses. Potential source rocks from the north of the basin comprise dark shales and marls with a TOC content averaging 9.7 wt % and HI values up to 389 mg HC/g TOC. Organic matter consists mainly of amorphous sapropelinite and vitrinite with minor sporinite, corresponding to Type II‐III kerogen. This is consistent with the kerogen type suggested by cross‐plots of HI versus T_max and H/C versus O/C. The T_max and R_r results indicate that the samples are immature to marginally mature. These source rocks, interpreted to have been deposited under oxic conditions with a dominant input of terrigenous organic matter, have moderate petroleum potential. The Dingqinghu Formation in the Nima Basin therefore has some promise in terms of future exploration potential.     

渤海海域天然气勘探前景分析

渤海湾盆地由陆上和海上两部分组成,至今陆上天然气勘探仅找到以伴生气为主的小气田;海域天然气勘探也取得一定的成效,由于形成条件要优于陆上,勘探前景更为广阔。海域天然气比陆上富集的主要因素表现在:沉积厚度大,使得盆地内主要烃源岩始新世沙河街组达到高成熟生气阶段;存在巨厚的渐新世东营组烃源岩;具有较强的晚期构造运动和较高的热流值,在浅层也有天然气聚集的领域。     

渤海湾盆地滩海地区油气富集规律与油气勘探

经过多年的勘探实践,渤海湾盆地滩海地区虽然目前的勘探程度仍很低,但在认识和实践两方面却均有较大的突破。依据盆地自第三纪古新世以来,沉积和沉降中心由陆地周缘向海域中心的逐步迁移特征,并从含油气体系的角度,结合已知含油气区带,探讨滩海地区所处的有利石油地质位置和含油气特征。滩海地区正处于Es₄—Es₃和Es₁—Ed两大套生烃岩系的叠置复合区。同时具备陆上的Es₃和Es₁以及海上的Ng和Nm等多套区域盖层。两大套烃源岩供油期长(Ed—Q),形成Ar至Nm多套含油气层系。油气非常富集。     

台西盆地烃源岩特征及天然气成藏条件

台西盆地是中国东南海域新生代陆缘扩张形成的一系列北东向裂陷-坳陷盆地之一。该盆地主要发育3套烃源岩：①渐新统-中新统海相泥岩和海陆过渡相含煤岩系；②古新统-始新统浅海-半深海相碎屑岩；③白垩系海相泥岩和海陆交互相含煤层系。其烃源岩指标分析显示为好的生气源岩，并达到生气门限。这些烃源岩与上覆储、盖层形成有利生储盖组合，为天然气成藏提供了良好条件。在整体分析基础上，重点对该盆地西部海域的南日坳陷和澎湖坳陷进行了研究，认为白垩系和古新统-始新统烃源岩为其主要烃源岩，埋深接近2800 m时进入大量生气阶段。通过对烃源岩成烃作用和含气系统的分析认为，以上2个坳陷具备天然气成藏的良好时空配置，是台西盆地天然气勘探的重要前景区。进一步推测分析认为，南日坳陷构造深部位可能具备根缘气成藏的有利条件。     

云南景谷盆地低熟石油地球化学特征与意义

位于我国西南滇西褶皱带上的云南景谷盆地为晚第三纪的残留盆地,在其中发现的大牛圈油田所产原油与源岩有机地球化学分析证明,景谷盆地所产原油为典型的低熟油。目前该油区含油面积为0.224km²,合计探明储量可达30余万吨。古生物化石组合表明该盆地为正常淡水湖盆,水生生物与陆生生物混合成为景谷盆地的主要成烃物质。景谷盆地低熟石油的研究,对于整个云南乃至滇黔桂地区的油气勘探都将起到积极的推动作用。     

印度河盆地含油气系统特征与成藏模式

印度河盆地是巴基斯坦最大的沉积盆地，油气资源丰富，油气主要聚集在白垩系-下第三系含油气系统中，以气为主。下白垩统Sembar组海相页岩是主要烃源岩，始新统Sui Main石灰岩和下白垩统下Goru组砂岩是盆地内的两套主要储集层，发育岩性、断块、断鼻和背斜等各类圈闭。油气成藏分为两期，早油晚气，早期形成了盆地南部巴丁地区的白垩纪被动裂谷断块油藏，晚期形成始新世石灰岩礁体岩性气藏。研究结果认为：盆地南部印度河三角洲入海处以及邻近海上区域和中西部褶皱带、前渊带是该区下一步寻找油气的主要目标靶区。     

南海万安盆地油气充载系统特征

万安盆地位于我国南沙海域西南部 ,是一个新生代含油气盆地。盆地沉积层为上始新统—第四系 ,其最大厚度达 12 0 0 0 m。勘探成果证实该盆地具有良好的油气勘探前景。在盆地油气地质特征研究和油气源分析的基础上 ,确定了盆地含油气系统 ,并应用盆地模拟成果研究了盆地充载系统的特征及其与油气藏分布的关系     

Tar sand occurrence: Implications on hydrocarbon exploration in the offshore Benin Basin

The Benin Basin, just like other marginal basins in the Gulf of Guinea, evolved in the Cretaceous following the opening of the Atlantic. These other basins have recorded significant oil and gas discoveries offshore unlike the Benin Basin that has records of only large tar sand deposits onshore. A review of key play elements of the basin is carried out to assess the possible occurrence of oil and gas in its offshore part. The basin holds a high prospect for both oil and gas in the offshore with the oil kitchens probably occurring within the lower to upper Cretaceous sediments. Besides containing shales deposited during the world-wide Turonian anoxic event that could serve as source rock, the Turonian sequences also have shelf to slope deposits, which are likely to be turbidite of deep-water environments. These turbidites could serve as an excellent reservoir in the basin. Several thick shale sequences within the Cretaceous to Tertiary could provide enough seal for hydrocarbons. In addition, unconformity surfaces marked by reflection terminations that are very significant during pre-drift and syn-rift tectono-stratigraphic development of the basin point to existence of stratigraphic traps in the basin. Concentration of these petroleum elements within the Cretaceous sequences suggest that exploration efforts should be geared toward the Cretaceous, particularly the Turonian sequences in the basin.     

NASARA-I WELL, GONGOLA BASIN (UPPER BENUE TROUGH, NIGERIA): SOURCE-ROCK EVALUATION

Well Nasara‐I, one of three exploration wells recently drilled in the Gongola Basin in the Upper Benue Trough (onshore Nigeria), was tested and found to be dry. The well penetrated an entirely Cretaceous succession comprising the Pindiga, Yolde and? Bima Formations, and standard organic geochemical analyses were carried out to assess the source‐rock potential of selected samples. Total organic carbon (TOC) contents were found generally to be very low, with no values exceeding 1.0wt%, and about one‐half of them ranging between 0.50 and 0.87wt%. Hydrogen indices (Hls) correlated against Tmax indicate some gas‐generative potential. However, in the depth interval between 4,710ft and 4,770ft, TOC values of between 52.1 and 55.2 wt% were recorded; these are characteristic of coals. This is the first report of a coal within the Pindiga, Yolde or Bima Formations. Hls were between 564 and 589 mgHC/gTOC and Tmax was 423–428°C. Although hydrogen indices can be misleading in assessing the oil‐generative potential of a coal, values as high as those recorded in Nasara‐I permit oil‐generative capabilities to be inferred. Total ion chromatograms of the saturated hydrocarbon fractions of the coaly samples show some ramping of unresolved complex mixtures attributable to biodegradation. Further biomarker data indicate a dominance of low molecular weight n‐alkanes (C₁₅–C₂₅), pristane/phytane ratios of 0.8 to 1.3, and very high contents of C₂₈ regular steranes. These attributes, together with the very high Hls, indicate that some oils generated from a probably deeper‐seated or laterally‐located (and yet to be identified) lacustrine source rock must have migrated and been adsorbed into the coaly facies, which were later intermittently subjected to anoxic to suboxic biodegradation processes.     

MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS FOR DIFFERENT MODELS OF HYDROCARBON MIGRATION IN THE JEANNE D'ARC BASIN,OFFSHORE NEWFOUNDLAND

Basin and petroleum systems modelling is a powerful tool in petroleum exploration, but uncertainties remain in terms of the evaluation of a petroleum accumulation's size and quality, even when the petroleum system is well known and the latest modelling technology is applied. In order to interpret the results of a modelling exercise, it is necessary to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the various possible approaches used to assess petroleum migration and accumulation. This paper attempts to compare the influence of different migration modelling techniques – the flowpath, Darcy “hybrid” and invasion percolation approaches – on basin‐wide mass balance calculations for a temperature‐ and pressure‐calibrated, numerical four‐dimensional basin model. The study was performed using PetroMod® software. The study area is the well‐known Jeanne d'Arc Basin located offshore Newfoundland, eastern Canada. Model predictions were verified against pre‐existing data including the quantity and quality of discovered hydrocarbons in the basin. Modelling results showed that the Darcy method produced substantially different results compared to the other migration techniques and this was due to the high accumulation efficiency. The flowpath method, and a combination of flowpath and Darcy methods (referred to as the “hybrid” method) yielded similar results; furthermore, the hybrid method predicted the petroleum composition quite accurately. The invasion percolation method gave similar results to the hybrid approach, but little or no variation in API and GOR across the basin was predicted. The adsorption model initially applied did not adequately reproduce the natural behaviour of source rocks with respect to petroleum expulsion efficiency. Therefore a revised model was implemented in which the adsorption capacity was reduced with increasing maturity. This revised adsorption model led to more realistic volumes of hydrocarbons being retained within the source rock. The application of this approach had only a minor impact on the volume and quality of the petroleum present in the reservoir units.