Production of volatile compounds by Rhizopus oligosporus during soybean and barley tempeh fermentation

Rhizopus oligosporus Saito can ferment soybeans or cereal grains to tempeh, a sliceable cake with improved nutritional properties. Volatiles produced by different R. oligosporus strains grown on malt extract agar (MEA), barley and soybean were investigated. The effect of co-cultivation with Lactobacillus plantarum on the production of volatiles was also studied. Volatile compounds were collected in situ by headspace diffusion and identified by GC-MS. The ten R. oligosporus strains that had different colony morphologies on MEA produced very similar volatile profiles, except for slight variations among the minor volatile compounds (e.g. sesquiterpenes). Likewise, practically no differences in volatile profiles were observed between three of the strains grown on soybeans. In contrast, the R. oligosporus volatile profile on soybean was different from that on barley from the same strain. Co-cultivation with L. plantarum did not influence volatile production by R. oligosporus. The dominant compounds produced on all three substrates were ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, 2-butanone, 2-methyl-1-propanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol and 2-methyl-1-butanol. Acetaldehyde and 2-methyl-propanal were also produced on MEA and barley, while 2-pentanone, methyl acetate, 2-butanol and 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol were observed on soybeans. Ethanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol were the most abundant volatile compounds produced on MEA and barley, while 2-butanone was the dominant volatile metabolite on soybean. The mushroom odour compounds, 3-octanone and 1-octen-3-ol, were only detected from soybean and soybean tempeh.     

Volatiles in a sausage surface model-influence of Penicillium nalgiovense, Pediococcus pentosaceus, ascorbate, nitrate and temperature

Thirty-two agar sausage models were arranged in a 2((5-1)) fractional factorial design to analyse the effects of Penicillium nalgiovense growth, Pediococcus pentosaceus starter, sodium ascorbate, sodium nitrate and temperature on 79 volatiles produced during incubation. The model focused on the outer 10 millimeters of sausages. Ascorbate addition showed clear antioxidative effects, and reduced the amount of more than half of all volatiles but increased concentrations of 2-methyl-propanal and 3-methyl-butanal. The effects of P. pentosaceus and Micrococcaceae were confounded, but together they had pronounced antioxidative effects, lowering the amount of straight chain aldehydes, 2-alkenals, furanes and ketones. P. pentosaceus and Micrococcaceae growth increased the leucine catabolites 3-methyl-butanal and 3-methyl-1-butanol. P. nalgiovense decreased the concentrations of 2-heptanone, 2-octanone and 2-nonanone, probably because of abnormally high concentration of mycelia. The data indicates that P. nalgiovense converts 2,3-butanedione and 3-hydroxy-2-butanone to 2-butanone. P. nalgiovense increased the concentrations of 1-octene-3-ol and dimethyl disulfide, liberated 2-methyl-furan and 2,4-dimethyl-furan from casing and seemed to liberate chloroform and 1,2-dimethyl benzene from meat. Both 2-methyl-1-propanol and 2-methyl-1-butanol decreased significantly with increasing temperature-this indicated a shift in metabolic pathway. No effects were seen for addition of nitrate.     

Effects of γ-irradiation on the flavour of dry shiitake (lentinus edodes sing)

Dry shiitake (Lentinus edodes Sing) was irradiated with doses of 5 and 10 kGy using ⁶⁰Co. The total volatile compounds were decreased by more than 50%. Irradiation increased the concentrations of some minor volatile compounds, such as 3-methyl-2-butanol and I-hexanol. However, the major flavour compounds including eight-carbon and sulphur-containing compounds were significantly reduced. The ratio of the eight-carbon compounds, such as 3-octanone, 3-octanol and 1-octen-3-ol, to total volatiles decreased from 72% in the control to 21% in the 10 kGy irradiated samples. The unidentified compounds which may have been formed by decomposition or polymerization following irradiation of precursors need to be studied in greater depth.     

会东县不同品种块菌挥发性香气成分的GC-MS分析

挥发性香气成分是块菌品质的重要指标,为探究不同品种块菌挥发性香气成分的差异,采用顶空固相微萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用对挥发性成分进行分析,并采用相对气味活度值判定主体挥发性香气成分。结果表明：6 种块菌共鉴定出24 种挥发性成分,主要包括醇类、酮类、醛类、烯类等,6 种块菌中共有的挥发性成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、苯乙醛、反-2-辛烯醛。假凹陷块菌的主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-醇和苯乙醛;夏块菌的主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、苯乙醛、反-2-辛烯醛、苯甲醛和己醛;印度块菌和会东块菌的主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-醇;凹陷块菌的主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、苯乙醛、反-2-辛烯醛、己醛和3-辛酮;波氏块菌的主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、反-2-辛烯醛和3-辛酮。     

14 种侧耳属食用菌干品挥发性香味成分分析

挥发性香味成分是影响食用菌品质的重要指标。为探究不同侧耳属食用菌挥发性香味物质的组成和相对含量,采用顶空固相微萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用方法对14 种侧耳属食用菌干品中的挥发性香味物质进行分析,并通过相对气味活度值（relative odor activity value,ROAV）和共有成分分析研究不同组分对整体风味的贡献。结果显示：14?种侧耳属食用菌干品中共鉴定出41?种挥发性化合物,主要包括醛类、醇类、酮类、酯类、羧酸类和呋喃类等;其中共有成分8?种,分别为正己醛、2-丁基-2-辛烯醛、1-己醇、1-辛烯-3-醇、正辛醇、2-辛烯-1-醇、3-辛酮和1-辛烯-3-酮;此外,醇类化合物在14?种侧耳属食用菌中相对含量远高于其他类化合物。除佛罗里达侧耳PF6中主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-酮、1-辛烯-3-醇和正辛醛外,其他13?种侧耳属食用菌中主体挥发性香气成分均为1-辛烯-3-酮和1-辛烯-3-醇。共有香气物质主成分分析显示前3?个主成分方差累计贡献率达到83.627%,主要代表性成分为1-己醇、正己醛、2-丁基-2-辛烯醛、正辛醇、2-辛烯-1-醇、1-辛烯-3-酮和3-辛酮等,它们是影响食用菌风味的关键性香味成分。     

Contribution of Penicillium sp. to the Flavors of Brie and Camembert Cheese

Volatile flavor compounds produced by Penicillium caseicolum in domestic and French Brie cheese were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; they included carbon-5, carbon-7, Carbon-9, carbon-11 methyl ketones, and corresponding secondary alcohols, 2-octanone, 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-ol, 1,5-octadien-3-ol, 1,5-octadien-3-one, and 2-methylisoborneol. Lipoxygenase formation of the eight carbon compounds responsible for the mushroom, plant-like flavors of mold surface-ripened cheeses was enhanced either by the disruption of mold mycelia or the addition of specific ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acid precursors. The occurrence of 8-nonen-2-one in mold-ripened cheeses was associated with the β-oxidative conversion of a specific unsaturated fatty acid resulting from initial lipoxygenase attack on either linoleic or linolenic acids.     

Volatile metabolites of some barley storage molds

Volatile metabolites from Penicillium species grown on barley were concentrated by adsorption on Tenax and analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Of the compounds identified from Penicillium aurantiogriseum, P. verrucosum and P. viridicatum, 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB), styrene (S) and 1-octen-3-ol (OO) were prominent while smaller amounts of 2-pentylfuran (PF), 3-methylanisole (MA), 2-(2-furyl)pentanal (FP) and 2-ethyl-5-methylphenol (EMP) were detected. P. coprophilum produced MB, S, PF, MA, FP, EMP and 2-methylacetophenone. Possible biosynthetic pathways are discussed.     

HS-SPME-GC-MS结合HPLC分析5种食用菌鲜品中的风味成分

挥发性香气成分和非挥发性滋味成分是食用菌品质的重要指标,为探究平菇、香菇、双孢蘑菇、金针菇和杏鲍菇等5种食用菌鲜品中的风味成分,采用顶空固相微萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用(HS-SPME-GC-MS)、高效液相色谱(HPLC)等方法对5种食用菌鲜品中的风味物质进行分析,通过相对气味活度值(Relative odor activity value,ROAV)研究了不同组分对整体风味的贡献,并测定了5种食用菌的总游离氨基酸和5'-核苷酸的含量。结果显示:5种食用菌中共鉴定出35种挥发性化合物,包括醛类5种、酮类5种、醇类9种、烷烃类8种、杂环和硫化物6种、酯类1种和含氮化合物1种;其中共有成分8种,分别为苯甲醛、3-辛酮、1-辛烯-3-酮、3-辛醇、2-乙基己醇、5-甲基-2-乙酰基呋喃、2-戊基呋喃和甲氧基苯肟。平菇鲜品中主体挥发性香气成分(ROAV≥1)为1-辛烯-3-酮、1-辛烯-3-醇和3-辛酮;香菇鲜品中主体挥发性香气成分为二甲基二硫醚、二甲基三硫醚、1-辛烯-3-酮和甲硫醇;双孢蘑菇和金针菇鲜品中主体挥发性香气成分为1-辛烯-3-酮、3-辛酮和3-辛醇;而杏鲍菇鲜品中的主体挥发性香气成分是1-辛烯-3-酮和1-辛烯-3-醇。5种食用菌中总游离氨基酸含量为2.72~3.65 mg/g,总呈味核苷酸含量为154.40~1013.60 μg/g,不同品种间总游离氨基酸和呈味核苷酸含量差别较大。本研究有助于深入了解食用菌风味特征,对食用菌品种的改良、定向培育及食用菌的加工应用具有指导作用。     

Storage experiments with barley at different moisture contents

Storage experiments were conducted in specially constructed silos each containing 10 kg barley at different moisture contents under controlled conditions at 20°C. Barley at 12 and 14 % moisture stored satisfactorily without mould development during an experimental period of 30 weeks. At increasing moisture contents a good correlation was found between increases in mould growth, CO₂ production and contents of reducing sugars, and decreases in non-reducing sugars and in germinative capacity. At the higher moisture contents, temperature rise took place and the feeding quality to rats was impaired Among the storage moulds Aspergillus was the predominating genus at moisture contents up to about 18%, while Penicillium spp. were prevalent at higher moisture contents. At the highest moisture content(26%) Fusarium spp. also developed vigorously. After storage, the barley was steeped and sprouted in micromalting equipment; Fusarium and Aspergillus developed more vigorously than in the barley, particularly in green malt produced from barley with a high moisture content.     

不同冷藏期鲳鱼及草鱼气味变化分析

以鲳鱼和草鱼分别作为海水鱼和淡水鱼代表,利用电子鼻评价冷藏条件下不同贮藏期的鱼肉气味,并通过气相色谱-质谱检测挥发性风味成分的变化。结果表明,电子鼻可以较好区分不同贮藏期的鱼肉气味,且草鱼的气味变化较鲳鱼更为显著。贮藏期间鲳鱼和草鱼分别鉴定出22 种和19 种挥发性物质,主要包括醛类、醇类、酯类及腐败性化合物等。新鲜鲳鱼挥发性风味主要以1-戊烯-3醇、己醛、1-辛烯-3醇、庚醛、2-辛烯醛为主,草鱼以己酸甲酯为主。贮藏期间,鲳鱼和草鱼气味成分变化也具有差异性,鲳鱼中和腐败相关的化合物主要为三甲胺和3-甲基丁醇等,且贮藏过程中醛类、醇类均呈下降趋势;草鱼贮藏过程中的第2天及第4天较为相关的化合物为癸醛、1-辛烯-3醇、己醛和壬醛等脂肪氧化的产物,而贮藏后期与腐败相关的化合物较少。上述结果初步说明生长环境、脂肪氧化及微生物腐败影响了海鱼和淡水鱼冷藏期气味形成。     

白姑鱼和小黄鱼肉中挥发性风味物质的鉴定

采用新型固相萃取整体捕集剂（Mono-Trap）结合气相色谱-质谱-嗅闻技术对白姑鱼和小黄鱼肉的挥发性风味物质进行鉴定,分别得到42 种和49 种挥发性成分。进一步通过芳香萃取物稀释分析法分别从白姑鱼和小黄鱼肉挥发物中筛选出12 种和6 种挥发物,其中9 种挥发物经质谱和线性保留指数鉴定。进一步结合校准频率（modified frequency,MF）法,各筛选出2 种鱼肉中排名前10的气味物质。白姑鱼中香气稀释（flavor dilution,FD）因子最高为40的化合物为三甲胺、2-辛烯-1-醇、壬醛及金属味未知化合物。结合MF排名,得到三甲胺和2-辛烯-1-醇对白姑鱼贡献较大;小黄鱼中FD因子最高为40的化合物为己醛和2-辛烯-1-醇,但结合MF排名,对其气味贡献较大的是三甲胺和未知烧烤味化合物。6-甲基-5-庚烯-2-酮为2 种鱼中均鉴定出的一种带金属味或血腥味成分,根据MF排名,该化合物对白姑鱼影响更大。2,3-戊二酮、1-戊烯-3-醇为小黄鱼中MF较靠前的物质,结合三甲胺和未知烧烤味化合物以及白姑鱼中未鉴定到的二甲基二硫醚,这些挥发物可能是造成其与白姑鱼气味感知差异的原因。     

Mycotoxins, ergosterol, and odor volatiles in durum wheat during granary storage at 16% and 20% moisture content

Eleven-kilogram parcels of durum wheat (Triticum durum L. cv. Melita) at 16% and 20% initial moisture content (m.c.) were kept in storage in a Manitoba farm granary for 20 weeks (May-September 2000) to determine changes in storage quality indicators and mycotoxin production. Temperature, moisture, CO₂ levels, ergosterol content, odor volatiles, microfloral infection, and levels of major mycotoxins were monitored. Ochratoxin A and citrinin reached mean levels of 6.5 and 11.6 mg/kg, respectively, by 20 weeks at 20% m.c., but were absent at 16% m.c., and no other mycotoxins were found. Penicillium species were the predominant microflora. Ergosterol levels remained between 3.9 and 8.4 mg/kg at 16% m.c., but increased from 3.9 to 55.5 mg/kg at 20% m.c. during the 20-week trial period. A 12-element metal-oxide chemosensor array was used to monitor odor volatile evolution. Nine of the 12 sensors were able to track odor volatile changes at 20% and could consistently distinguish between volatiles from the two moisture treatments. Signals from these nine chemosensors showed a good correlation with ochratoxin A formation at 20% m.c. with r values between 0.84 and 0.87. Signals from two of these nine sensors also correlated well with citrinin formation (r=0.83) and very well with ergosterol production (r=0.98).     

不同干酵母发酵豆粕的挥发性成分分析

采用顶空固相微萃取和气相色谱-质谱联用技术,对豆粕和4种干酵母发酵豆粕后的挥发性成分进行了主成分分析。豆粕中共鉴定出36种挥发性成分,主要成分为1-辛烯-3-醇、1-己醇、酯类化合物和醛类化合物,其中1-辛烯-3-醇含量最高,占34.03%。豆粕经过安琪酵母、马利酵母、舒可曼酵母和超凡酵母发酵后,发酵产物中分别鉴定出54、51、57、52种挥发性物质,1-辛烯-3-醇、3-甲基-1-丁醇、1-己醇、苯乙醇和酯类为发酵产物的主要挥发性成分;1-辛烯-3-醇的含量与发酵前相比下降明显,其中超凡酵母发酵后含量降至10.28%。通过主成分分析得知,超凡酵母和舒可曼酵母发酵后的豆粕的挥发性成分在整体上较为接近,而与安琪酵母、马利酵母明显不同。     

Volatile compounds from the fruiting bodies of three Hygrophorus mushroom species from Northern Greece

The volatile composition of the wild edible mushroom species Hygrophorus chrysodon , Hygrophorus eburneus and Hygrophorus russocoriaceus was analysed by headspace-solid phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Forty-five volatile compounds were detected, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, esters and terpenes. The most abundant compounds in the three species were 3-methyl butanal, hexanal, p -cymene, 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-one, 3-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol and benzoic acid methyl ester. The concentration of eight-carbon (C₈) compounds relative to the total volatiles varied widely ranging from 24.14% to 61.41% among the three species. Finally, the presence of sesquiterpenes only in Hygrophorus russocoriaceus , confirms the characteristic distinctive cedar odour of this species.     

Flavor Variability and Flavor Stability of U.S.-Produced Whole Milk Powder

ABSTRACT:  Flavor variability and stability of U.S.-produced whole milk powder (WMP) are important parameters for maximizing quality and global competitiveness of this commodity. This study characterized flavor and flavor stability of domestic WMP. Freshly produced (<1 mo) WMP was collected from 4 U.S. production facilities 5 times over a 1 y period. Each sample was analyzed initially and every 2 mo for sensory profile, volatiles, color, water activity, and moisture through 12 mo storage. Selected volatiles were quantified using solid phase microextraction (SPME) with gas chromatography/mass-spectrometry: dimethyl sulfide, 2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal, hexanal, 2-heptanone, heptanal, 1-octen-3-ol, octanal, 3-octen-2-one, and nonanal. Multiple linear regression with backwards elimination was applied to generate equations to predict grassy and painty flavors based on selected volatiles. All WMP were between 2% and 3% moisture and 0.11 and 0.25 water activity initially. WMP varied in initial flavor profiles with varying levels of cooked, milk fat, and sweet aromatic flavors. During storage, grassy and painty flavors developed while sweet aromatic flavor intensities decreased ( P  < 0.05). Painty and grassy flavors were confirmed by increased levels ( P  < 0.05) of lipid oxidation products such as hexanal, heptanal, and octanal. Hexanal, 2-heptanone, 1-octen-3-ol, and nonanal concentrations were best predictors of grassy flavor ( R ²= 0.38,  P  < 0.0001) while hexanal, 2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal, octanal, and 3-octen-2-one concentrations were best predictors of painty flavor ( R ²= 0.61,  P  < 0.0001). These results provide baseline information to determine specific factors that can be controlled to optimize U.S. WMP flavor and flavor stability.     

Aroma Characterization of Cabernet Sauvignon Wine from the Plateau of Yunnan (China) with Different Altitudes Using SPME-GC/MS

The aroma characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon wines from five different altitudes (Xidang-2110, Dari-2249, Jiunongding-2330, Adong-2610, and Jiangpo-2788, respectively) in the plateau of Yunnan (China) were detected by headspace solid phase micro-extraction gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The results showed that the numbers of volatile compounds increased with altitude rising, while the concentration of the total volatiles decreased with the exception of Xidang-2110. Alcohol and esters accounted for more than 97% of the total volatile compounds. Ten out of thirty-six components (22%) identified and quantified in five wines were found at concentrations higher than their corresponding threshold values (OAVs > 1). Ethyl hexanoate, ethyl butyrate, and 1-octen-3-ol were the three most powerful odorants in wine from Xidang-2110; but odor activity values and relative odor contribution of 1-octen-3-ol were higher than ethyl hexanoate and ethyl butyrate in the wines from Dari-2249 and Adong-2610; meanwhile β-damascenone, ethyl hexanoate, and 1-octen-3-ol were the three most powerful odorants in wines from Jiunongding-2330 and Jiangpo-2788.     

高盐稀态酱油发酵优势真菌与风味物质相关性分析

采用Illumina MiSeq高通量测序研究高盐稀态酱油发酵过程中真菌群落结构变化及优势真菌,分析发酵过程中的还原糖、氨基酸态氮、总酸及挥发性风味物质变化。结果显示,高盐稀态酱油发酵过程中共计出现44 个真菌属,其中发酵0～2 个月优势菌属为曲霉属（Aspergillus,62.62%～93.85%）,促进了还原糖和氨基酸态氮的生成,发酵3 个月氨基酸态氮质量浓度已达到10.45 g/L;发酵3～5 个月优势菌属为柯达酵母属（Kodamaea,85.64%～99.50%）,发酵6 个月优势菌属为接合酵母属（Zygosaccharomyces,78.12%）,发酵6 个月,还原糖、氨基酸态氮和总酸质量浓度分别为17.73、10.72 g/L和21.68 g/L。气相色谱-质谱联用分析发酵过程样品,共检测出61 种挥发性风味物质,发酵结束时总质量浓度为12 404.15 μg/L,其中醇类和酸类物质质量浓度较高,分别为8 826.2 μg/L和2 349.97 μg/L。优势真菌与挥发性风味物质相关性分析发现,曲霉属与1-辛烯-3-醇呈显著正相关（P＜0.05）,柯达酵母属与风味物质的变化无显著相关性,接合酵母属与苯乙醇、3-甲基-1-丁醇、2-甲基-1-丁醇、苯甲醛、乙酸乙酯等多种物质呈显著正相关（P＜0.05）。研究证明,真菌群落结构变化及优势真菌是影响风味物质形成的重要因素,构建有益的真菌菌群有利于提升酱油品质。     

Streptomyces alboflavus TD-1产挥发性抑菌物质对黄曲霉菌生长及其毒素的抑制作用

利用双皿对扣和气相色谱-质谱法,研究白黄链霉菌TD-1（Streptomyces alboflavus TD-1）在不同葡萄糖浓度培养基中的生长和挥发性有机化合物（volatile organic compounds,VOCs）代谢规律,通过荧光显微镜、扫描电子显微镜及高效液相色谱等方法,研究1-辛烯-3-醇对黄曲霉菌的抑菌机制。结果表明,高浓度葡萄糖（500 mmol/L）培养条件下,白黄链霉菌TD-1的初始生长速率与VOCs产生能力受到明显抑制,当葡萄糖浓度降至50 mmol/L左右,抑制得到解除。利用气相色谱-质谱分析发现,白黄链霉菌TD-1所产生的有效抑菌VOCs包括己醛、1-辛烯-3-醇、2-正戊基呋喃、2-甲基异冰片和苯乙酮等。其中,食品级VOCs 1-辛烯-3-醇在用量15 μL/L时可完全抑制黄曲霉的生长,对黄曲霉菌丝体和孢子形态具有明显的致畸作用,可破坏线粒体膜,抑制黄曲霉毒素B1合成速率至31.98%。说明葡萄糖浓度会影响白黄链霉菌TD-1生长和VOCs产量;1-辛烯-3-醇具有抑制黄曲霉菌生长和黄曲霉毒素B1合成的作用。     

Mycoflora and ochratoxin A producing strains of Aspergillus in Algerian wheat

Wheat is a basic staple food for very large segments of the population of Algeria. The aim of this study is to analyse ochratoxin A (OTA)-producing mould and OTA-contaminated wheat. To evaluate the mycoflora and the potential for OTA production by Aspergillus strains, a total of 85 samples of wheat destined for human consumption were collected from two regions in Algeria (Tizi Ouzou and Setif) during the following phases: preharvest, storage in silos, and after processing. The mean value counts of fungi ranged from 275 to 1277 CFU g(-1). The dominant genus was Aspergillus, predominantly A. flavus, A. niger and A. versicolor. The other isolated species were A. ochraceus, A. alliaceus, A. carbonarius, A. terreus, A. fumigatus, A. candidus and Aspergillus spp. The occurrence and the levels of the genus Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria and Mucor were substantially lower than those of Aspergillus. The storage in silos shows high levels of Aspergillus (66 to 84%), especially A. flavus, but A. niger and other fungi were isolated at relatively low percentages. Equal distribution of the fungal contamination into the bran, flour and semolina fractions was observed from Flour Mill and Semolina Mill. The genus Aspergillus remained present at high levels at several phases of the production process. In addition, the ability to produce OTA by 135 isolates belonging to eleven species of Aspergillus and 23 isolates of Penicillium spp. was analyzed using fluorescent detection-based HPLC. Thus, it was found that 51 isolates (32.3%) were ochratoxigenic. All isolated strains of A. ochraceus (12) and A. alliaceus (6) produced OTA at concentrations ranging from 0.23 to 11.50 microg g(-1). Most of the A. carbonarius strains (80%) were OTA producers (0.01 to 9.35 microg g(-1)), whereas A. terreus (50%), A. niger (28%), A. fumigatus (40%), A. versicolor (18%) and Penicillium spp. (21.7%) were low level producers (0.01 to 0.07 microg g(-1)). The concentration of OTA was determined in 30 samples of wheat. OTA was detected in 12 (40%) of the samples at levels ranging from 0.21 to 41.55 microg kg(-1).