The ambiguous status of meat in ancient Rome

Scholars have found that assumed connections between meat eating and performances of masculinity are perpetuated across the American public sphere. However, food expectations and choices are constantly shifting and evolving over time. Recent cultural shifts in the middle and upper-middle class American foodscape that moralize “good” eating as choosing local, organic, and eco-conscious foods, prompts the questioning of their social effects for vegetarian and vegan men, who hold a previously-stigmatized consumption identity. This article analyzes qualitative interviews conducted with twenty vegan and vegetarian men in a semi-urban area of the southeastern United States to better understand how they conceptualize and explain their food consumption identities in relation to their broader identity practices. I find their performances of masculinity often defy the conventional feminization of meatless diets, while also upholding gendered binaries of emotion/rationality and current tropes of white, middle-class masculinity.     

Validation and application of a German version of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire: Revealing differences between omnivores,vegetarians, and vegans

The Dietarian Identity Questionnaire (DIQ; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2018) assesses how an individual thinks, feels, and behaves regarding the consumption or eschewal of animal products. This instrument offers a useful method for understanding how omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans alike construct their eating behaviours. In the current study (N = 961), we validated a German translation of the DIQ – the DIQ-D – and compared the dietarian identity profiles of omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans. Confirmatory factor analyses replicated the factor structure reported for the DIQ in English-speaking samples. Compared to omnivores, vegetarians considered their diet to be more central to their overall sense of identity, felt stronger motivations to follow their diet, adhered to their diet more strictly, evaluated their dietary in-group more favourably, evaluated their dietary out-group more negatively, and felt as though their dietary in-group was judged more negatively by others. For all of these effects, vegans reported more extreme scores than did vegetarians. Exploratory analyses of more nuanced dietary subgroups revealed differences in dietarian identity profiles between vegans who consume honey versus vegans who eschew honey and between pescetarians who self-identify as vegetarians versus pescetarians who do not. Our findings suggest that the DIQ-D offers a valuable method for identifying psychological correlates of people’s dietary relationships with animal products.     

From mostly vegetarian to fully vegetarian: Meat avoidance and the expression of social identity

The dichotomous divide between vegetarians and omnivores seems clear: Omnivores eat meat, whereas vegetarians do not. Yet classifying people dichotomously as vegetarian or omnivorous overlooks a distinct group of people who limit their meat intake but still include some meat in their diets: a group of “mostly vegetarian” dieters called flexitarians (a term combining the words, “flexible” and “vegetarian”). Despite the estimated prevalence of flexitarianism in the United States hovering at approximately 20% to 30% of the population, we have little knowledge about how flexitarians construe their food choices. Through a preregistered study (N = 718), we identified psychological differences between flexitarians and full vegetarians as well as predictors of flexitarians’ openness to going fully vegetarian. Across all tests, social identity aspects of meat avoidance emerged as significant factors, over and above what motivations participants reported for avoiding meat. Findings suggest that social identity phenomena offer insights into how meat-avoiders construe not only their current, but also their prospective, food choices.     

Fortification of vegetarian diets for increasing bioavailable iron density using green leafy vegetables

There is a high prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia in many developing countries today; especially in vegetarian women. The major cause of this state is low bioavailability of nonheme iron from vegetarian diets. An investigation was undertaken to improve bioavailable contents of nonheme iron from vegetarian meals. Forty-eight meals with combinations of roti (unleavened whole cereal pancake) of one of the six cereals and one of the four commonly consumed green leafy vegetables (GLV) along with 35 meals with cereal roti and fruit vegetable/legume were tested for their in vitro dialysability of iron using simulated gastrointestinal conditions and standardised protocol with ⁵⁹Fe as a tracer. Average bioavailable iron density of GLV-based meals was significantly higher (1.2±0.7 mg /1000 kcal) as against the value in prevailing dietary patterns having cereal-legume or cereal-fruit vegetable combinations (0.36±0.17 mg/1000 kcal, p⩽0.001). Around 31 GLV-based meals were identified as having higher amounts of bioavailable iron density than 0.75 mg/1000 kcal. Thus, one such GLV-based meal per day will increase gross as well as bioavailable iron intake which will help in meeting daily requirements of iron especially for vegetarian women of reproductive age.     

Calcium bioavailability of vegetarian diets in rats: potential application in a bioregenerative life-support system

Calcium bioavailability of vegetarian diets containing various proportions of candidate crops for a controlled ecological life-support system (CELSS) was determined by femur 45Ca uptake. Three vegetarian diets and a control diet were labeled extrinsically with 45Ca and fed to 5-wk old male rats. A fifth group of rats fed an unlabeled control diet received an intraperitoneal (IP) injection of 45Ca. There was no significant difference in mean calcium absorption of vegetarian diets (90.80 +/- 5.23%) and control diet (87.85 +/- 5.25%) when calculated as the percent of an IP dose. The amounts of phytate, oxalate, and dietary fiber in the diets did not affect calcium absorption.     

Gender and nutrition management in type 2 diabetes.

PURPOSE: The literature suggests that adherence to dietary recommendations may differ between women and men with type 2 diabetes due to family obligations and spousal support. METHODS: To assess division of household labour between spouses, retrospective chart review of 561 individuals who attended the Diabetes Education Centre at the Toronto Western Hospital was performed. Qualitative interviews were also performed with 12 married clients (six female and six male) and seven spouses of clients (three female, four male) to understand how the sharing of household labour influences adherence to nutrition guidelines in type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: Results indicate a significant gender difference in responsibility for meal preparation (chi2(3)=140.64, p<.001) and grocery shopping (chi2(3)=88.24, p<0.001), with women more often engaging in these household activities than men. Male clients are more likely to be actively supported by their wives in the form of meal preparation and verbal encouragement, while female clients are only passively supported by their husbands. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that diabetes educators should recognize gender differences in household labour and support when counselling their clients to ensure that both men and women have the help they need to successfully manage their diabetes.     

Effect of soy and milk protein-related compounds on Listeria monocytogenes infection in human enterocyte Caco-2 cells and A/J mice

Listeria monocytogenes causes listeriosis in humans, mainly through the consumption of ready-to-eat foods such as cheese. Immunocompromised persons, the elderly, and pregnant women and their fetuses or newborns are at the highest risk for the infection. We examined the effects of dietary milk-casein (MC) and soy-protein (SP), and their digested compounds tryptone (TP) and phytone peptone (PP), respectively, on L. monocytogenes invasion and infection in human enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells and A/J mice. Invasion into Caco-2 cells tended to be high with TP. In A/J mice orally infected with L. monocytogenes, viable numbers in the liver and spleen showed a tendency of decreasing with the 20% SP diet compared to the 20% MC diet. SP suppressed the inflammation marker tumour necrosis factor-α in spleen tissue. Furthermore, bacteria lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) secretion from murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells was suppressed by PP more than TP. These results suggest that major dietary proteins might affect infection and inflammation by L. monocytogenes.     

The vitamin mystique: an analysis of beliefs and reputations of vitamin supplements among a regional sample of grocery shoppers

The objective of the present study was to examine the reputations of vitamin supplements and determine the extent to which supplement reputations among young, middle-aged, and elderly adult men and women correspond to established science. Young, middle-aged and older men and women were recruited as they shopped and were asked to answer a few questions concerning their habits and beliefs about vitamin supplements. The older the participant, the more likely it was they took vitamins; vitamin C was considered most important for all respondents, however, the reputation of vitamin E increased with age. Young and middle-aged women (compared to men) believed vitamin supplements important for health (even if diet is adequate); this was reversed for older men and women.     

Liking for foods high in salt and fat is associated with a lower diet quality but liking for foods high in sugar is not – Results from the PREDISE study

The research aimed at examining how liking for foods high in salt and fat and for foods high in sugar are associated with overall diet quality and how these associations differ according to individual characteristics (i.e., sex, age, education, income, nutrition knowledge, and energy reporting status) in French-speaking adults from the Province of Quebec, Canada. As part of the web-based cross-sectional PREDISE study, 1096 men and women completed online questionnaires. The Food Liking Questionnaire assessed reported liking for a variety of salty foods (high in salt and fat) and sweet foods (high in sugar and either high-fat or low-fat) on a scale from 1 to 9. The Canadian Healthy Eating Index (C-HEI) was computed based on data collected using 24-hour food recalls. Women (vs. men) reported lower liking for salty foods (5.97 ± 1.34 vs. 6.58 ± 1.16, p < 0.0001) and for sweet foods (5.52 ± 1.36 vs. 5.71 ± 1.25, p = 0.015). Multiple linear regressions showed that liking for sweet foods was not associated with C-HEI (B = −0.10, p = 0.78). Given a significant sex interaction in the association between liking for salty foods and C-HEI (p interaction = 0.0218), subsequent analyses were stratified by sex. Multiple linear regressions supported that liking for salty foods was more strongly inversely associated with C-HEI in men (B = −3.37, p < 0.0001) than women (B = −1.46, p = 0.0035). In conclusion, a strong liking for salty foods may interfere with healthy eating, especially in men. Building on these results, future studies should investigate the potential of interventions designed to improve the healthiness of food habits in individuals with strong liking for these foods.     

“I’m eating healthy now”: The relationship between perceived behavior change and diet

Public health campaigns often encourage people to increase the consumption of vegetables and fruits while limiting sugar, fat, and salt intake. Furthermore, recent approaches increasingly suggest accumulating small behavioral shifts to change eating behavior. However, when individuals actually do notice a positive change in their diet behavior has rarely been studied to date. Accordingly, the present research examined the relationship between felt and actual changes in healthy food intake. Food choice was assessed in two longitudinal studies (Study 1: N = 743; Study 2: N = 489) using a validated food frequency questionnaire. For assessing perceived healthy eating shifts, participants stated at a second measurement-point whether they had changed their eating patterns in the previous six months. Accordingly, participants were classified into four ‘Perceived Change’ groups: Changers, Attempters, Non-Attempters, and Healthy Eaters. In Study 1, participants who claimed they had made a healthy shift in their eating behavior (Changers) shifted from a regular to an optimal dietary pattern. Furthermore, Changers reduced their intake of five food categories: chocolate, cakes/pastries/biscuits, sausages/ham, meat, and eggs. No systematic changes were observed in the remaining groups. These results were replicated in Study 2. Participants perceived a change in their diet only if they had achieved a healthy shift in their dietary pattern. Moreover, Changers in both studies exhibited a significant decrease in their BMI. Overall, the group of Changers improved their diet, potentially reducing their risk for non-communicable diseases. Implications of these findings for public health campaigns are discussed.     

Tribolium castaneum progeny production and development on diets supplemented with eggs or adults of Plodia interpunctella

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) progeny production and rate of development on cracked corn (substandard diet) increased after dead eggs or adults of Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) were added to the diet. This finding suggests that dietary supplementation with P. interpunctella eggs or adults could lead to a population buildup of T. castaneum and a population reduction of P. interpunctella when the two species occur together in nature on a diet that is substandard for T. castaneum.     

Prevalence and correlates of smoking on the roof of the world

OBJECTIVE—To determine the prevalence and correlates of cigarette smoking among adults in high mountain rural areas of northern Pakistan.
DESIGN—Cross sectional survey.
PARTICIPANTS—A sample of 4203 adults (aged 18 years and over) were selected by stratified random sampling from 16 villages.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE—Self reported smoking prevalence; age of smoking initiation; daily cigarette consumption and association between current smoking and sociodemographic variables, use of snuff, wine, body mass index, blood pressure, family history of stroke, and hypertension.
RESULTS—614/1406 men (43.7%) and 154/2797 (5.5%) women reported smoking cigarettes. The age standardised prevalence of smoking was 40.5% for men and 6.3% for women. Men were more likely (odds ratio (OR) 6.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.75 to 8.79) to be smokers. Smokers were more likely to use snuff (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.12 to 1.73), drink wine (OR 3.47, 95% CI 2.81 to 4.29), and were more likely to work as farmers (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.05 to 2.29) or shopkeepers (OR 2.63, 95% CI 1.67 to 4.14). Individuals with college level education and with desirable body mass index were less likely to smoke (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.35 to 0.87; OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.57 to 0.96).
CONCLUSION—Cigarette smoking is a major public health problem in this high mountain community of Pakistan, particularly among the male population, the majority of whom begin to smoke quite early in life. A comprehensive tobacco control effort incorporated into the existing community based health infrastructure is needed.


Keywords: Pakistan; prevalence of smoking     

Diet and plasma evaluation of the main isomers of conjugated linoleic acid and trans-fatty acids in a population sample from Mediterranean north-east Spain

The aim of the present study was to describe the dietary pattern of a representative sample of 516 adult participants (203 men and 313 women) from Catalonia, a Spanish Mediterranean region, to assess their current dietary and plasma levels of trans C18:1, the major trans-fatty acid (TFA), and cis-9, trans-11 CLA, and trans-10, cis-12 CLA, the two major conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, and to evaluate their correlation with several cardiovascular disease risk factors. The population was a random sample derived from the Catalan Nutrition Survey. Plasma levels of the CLA isomers were determined in a subsample of 100 volunteers. The Catalan diet seemed to maintain some traits of the ‘traditional’ Mediterranean diet, although other components were lost. The dietary intakes of saturated fatty acids (SFA), TFA, cis-9, trans-11 CLA, and trans-10, cis-12 CLA were 12.3%, 0.84% (2.0 g/d), 0.030% (71.5 mg/d), and 0.0015% (3.4 mg/d) of the energy intake, respectively. Trans C18:1 accounted for 0.19% of the total plasma fatty acids, while the sum of cis-9, trans-11and trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomers represented about 0.09% of the plasma fatty acids. Trans C18:1 isomers correlated significantly with the intake of French fries and pastries, while cis-9, trans-11 CLA significantly correlated with the intake of dairy products and ruminant meat. None of the cardiovascular disease risk factors were found to be associated with the plasma levels of TFA or CLA. The results of this study suggest that monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) are the main dietary fat source in the Catalan population, due to their regular olive oil consumption. Moreover, plasma levels of the main TFA and CLA suggest that the Catalan diet is not at present strongly influenced by the occidental dietary patterns. However, a reduction of the intake of SFA in the Catalan population should be recommended.     

The iron status of Canadian adolescents and adults: current knowledge and practical implications.

OVERVIEW: Iron is an essential nutrient, playing a central role in oxygen transport and cellular energy metabolism. The importance of ensuring adequate bioavailable dietary iron stems from the severe consequences associated with iron deficiency (ID) and anemia, including reduced immune function and resistance to infection, developmental delays and irreversible cognitive deficits in young children, impaired physical work performance, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. SPECIFIC POPULATIONS: Poor dietary iron intake and ID exist in Canada, particularly in women of reproductive age. Data from the provincial nutrition surveys suggest that the prevalence of inadequate iron intakes (and low intakes of absorbable iron) among women under 50 years of age is over 10%, which may reflect poor iron status. Teenage girls are at risk for low iron stores because of the adolescent growth spurt and the onset of menstruation; those who are vegetarian are at even greater risk. CONCLUSIONS: The Canadian diet has changed so that grain products are now the main source of dietary iron for all age groups. The public must be educated to ensure the consumption of adequate quantities of bioavailable iron and enhancing factors such as vitamin C. Industry, government, and health professionals must work together to promote healthy eating patterns and the selection of appropriate foods.     

Distinguishing meat reducers from unrestricted omnivores,vegetarians and vegans: A comprehensive comparison of Australian consumers

Meat reducers are a growing but largely unexplored population subgroup in Australia. A comprehensive understanding of individual characteristics associated with meat consumption preferences can help inform strategies aimed at encouraging healthier and more environmentally sustainable food choices. Using online survey data from a nationally representative sample of 2797 Australian food shoppers, this study 1) compares characteristics (dietary, psychosocial and socio-demographic) of consumers with distinct self-identified dietary preferences (unrestricted omnivores, meat reducers, vegetarians and vegans); 2) identifies the psychosocial and socio-demographic predictors of the meat-reducer diet group; and 3) determines whether predictors of the meat-reducer diet group differ based on diet group classification method (i.e. self-identified dietary preferences versus self-reported consumption frequency of animal-source foods). Results reveal that relative to unrestricted omnivores and meat avoiders, meat reducers are unique with respect to their meat consumption behaviours; beliefs regarding the nutritional adequacy and food choice adequacy of meat-free diets; and the relative importance they place on egoistic food choice factors. Considering self-identified dietary preferences, multivariate regressions found that stronger beliefs regarding meat-free diet adequacy and lower importance placed on egoistic food choice factors predict meat reducers relative to unrestricted omnivores; and weaker beliefs regarding meat-free diet adequacy and higher importance placed on egoistic food choice factors predict meat reducers relative to meat avoiders. Findings from this study can provide insight on how to more holistically address the concerns and motivations of consumers with distinct meat consumption preferences.     

Masculine (low) digit ratios predict masculine food choices in hungry consumers

This study investigated the link between individuals’ 2D:4D digit ratio (a biomarker associated with prenatal testosterone exposure) and their inclination to make masculine food choices. Furthermore, the study investigated whether this potential association would be moderated by consumers’ levels of hunger (vs. satiation). Participants (N = 216; 50% female) made a set of binary food choices between items pretested to be perceived as masculine (vs. feminine) and indicated the lengths of their second (2D) and fourth (4D) digits (i.e., index and ring fingers), which were used to calculate their 2D:4D digit ratios. Additionally, they self-reported their self-perceived gender identity and their subjective sense of hunger (vs. satiation). The results revealed that low, masculine digit ratios had no overall impact on masculine food choices. However, among both men and women and irrespective of their self-perceived gender identity, hungry (vs. satiated) participants with masculine digit ratios made more masculine food choices. Thus, although digit ratios did not act as an antecedent of participants’ general tendency of making masculine food choices, the specific visceral state of hunger interacted with participants’ digit ratios to predict choices of masculine foods. Taken together, these findings expand the knowledge on when and how prenatal exposure to sex hormones may affect consumers’ food preferences and in which specific way a particular visceral state may moderate the link between biologically based factors and consumer choice.     

Diet quality in children: A function of grandparents’ feeding practices?

Grandparents are playing an increasingly important role in shaping the nutrition environment and eating behaviours of their grandchildren. Yet, research assessing the various feeding practices of grandparents and the association between grandparents’ engagement in these practices and the nutritional quality of the food consumed by their grandchild is limited. Accordingly, the present study (i) examined the feeding practices of grandparents who report providing childcare to their grandchildren, (ii) developed and tested a model linking the various practices of grandparent caregivers to the frequency with which their grandchildren consume healthy and unhealthy foods while in grandparental care, and (iii) explored the socio-demographic predictors of engagement in feeding practices. An online survey was administered to grandparents who reported providing regular care to at least one grandchild aged 3–14 years (n = 1076, 60% female, average age = 65.07 years, SD = 6.68). Grandparents reported using positive feeding practices more frequently than negative feeding practices. The developed model provided a good fit to the data and accounted for 16% of the variance in vegetable consumption, 15% in fruit consumption, 37% in savoury snack consumption, 23% in sweet snack consumption, and 35% in sugary drink consumption. Positive feeding practices were identified as being more important correlates of diet quality than negative feeding practices, with the provision of a healthy food environment and limit setting found to be associated with favourable dietary behaviours. Results suggest that grandparents should be considered important stakeholders in the promotion of healthy eating and targeted in policies and programs addressing children’s diet and obesity.     

Comparative effects of different dietary approaches on blood pressure in hypertensive and pre-hypertensive patients: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

ABSTRACT

Background: Pairwise meta-analyses have shown beneficial effects of individual dietary approaches on blood pressure but their comparative effects have not been established. Objective: Therefore we performed a systematic review of different dietary intervention trials and estimated the aggregate blood pressure effects through network meta-analysis including hypertensive and pre-hypertensive patients. Design: PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL, and Google Scholar were searched until June 2017. The inclusion criteria were defined as follows: i) Randomized trial with a dietary approach; ii) hypertensive and pre-hypertensive adult patients; and iii) minimum intervention period of 12 weeks. In order to determine the pooled effect of each intervention relative to each of the other intervention for both diastolic and systolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP), random effects network meta-analysis was performed. Results: A total of 67 trials comparing 13 dietary approaches (DASH, low-fat, moderate-carbohydrate, high-protein, low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, Palaeolithic, vegetarian, low-GI/GL, low-sodium, Nordic, Tibetan, and control) enrolling 17,230 participants were included. In the network meta-analysis, the DASH, Mediterranean, low-carbohydrate, Palaeolithic, high-protein, low-glycaemic index, low-sodium, and low-fat dietary approaches were significantly more effective in reducing SBP (?8.73 to ?2.32 mmHg) and DBP (?4.85 to ?1.27 mmHg) compared to a control diet. According to the SUCRAs, the DASH diet was ranked the most effective dietary approach in reducing SBP (90%) and DBP (91%), followed by the Palaeolithic, and the low-carbohydrate diet (ranked 3rd for SBP) or the Mediterranean diet (ranked 3rd for DBP). For most comparisons, the credibility of evidence was rated very low to moderate, with the exception for the DASH vs. the low-fat dietary approach for which the quality of evidence was rated high. Conclusion: The present network meta-analysis suggests that the DASH dietary approach might be the most effective dietary measure to reduce blood pressure among hypertensive and pre-hypertensive patients based on high quality evidence.     

Do metal grain silos benefit women in Kenya,Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe?

Metal silos can reduce maize losses during storage in smallholder farm systems, contributing towards international goals of reducing food waste and moving towards Sustainable Development Goal 2, Zero Hunger. However, technologies are introduced into farming systems with complex sets of relationships. These may differentially affect the ability of women and men to secure the expected benefits of metal silos. This, in turn, may affect adoption rates and expected outcomes. To better understand these relationships, a mixed methods study was conducted in Kenya, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia where metal silos were introduced through the Effective Grain Storage Project (EGSP). EGSP distributed 1717 metal silos across the four countries.Quantitative surveys using random sampling were conducted in Kenya (124 respondents) and Malawi (100 respondents) with metal silo owners. Qualitative surveys, using purposive sampling, were conducted in all four countries covering 14 ethnic groups using focus group discussions (360 respondents), key informant interviews (62 respondents), and household case studies (62 respondents). The aim was to understand gendered post-harvest management and storage strategies in traditional systems and to map changes when metal silos were introduced.The findings suggest roles and responsibilities regarding the ownership and management of storage structures are strongly gendered with some differences between ethnic groups and countries. Men benefit more than women from the introduction of metal silos. Ownership of the grain storage facility, and the benefits attached to ownership, can switch from women to men with women having less scope for bargaining over their rights to use the stored grain for their own needs and the benefit of all household members. Women and men fail to fully follow guidelines for effective use of metal silos. They differ in their preferred attributes for their ideal storage system. Whilst some attributes are shared, women’s preferences were sharply differentiated from men in others.     

Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of studies in humans

Plant‐based diets contain less saturated fat and cholesterol and more folate, fibre and phytochemicals than omnivorous diets, but some micronutrients, especially zinc, are poorly bioavailable. The findings of studies exploring the zinc intake and zinc status in populations that habitually consume vegetarian diets are inconsistent. This study aims to investigate the effects of plant‐based diets on dietary zinc intake and status in humans using systematic review and meta‐analysis techniques. Thirty‐four studies were included in the systematic review. Of these, 26 studies (reporting 48 comparisons) compared males and/or females consuming vegetarian diets with non‐vegetarian groups and were included in meta‐analyses. Dietary zinc intakes and serum zinc concentrations were significantly lower (?0.88 ± 0.15 mg day^?1, P < 0.001 and ?0.93 ± 0.27 µmol L^?1, P = 0.001 respectively; mean ± standard error) in populations that followed habitual vegetarian diets compared with non‐vegetarians. Secondary analyses showed greater impact of vegetarian diets on the zinc intake and status of females, vegetarians from developing countries and vegans. Populations that habitually consume vegetarian diets have low zinc intakes and status. Not all vegetarian categories impact zinc status to the same extent, but a lack of consistency in defining vegetarian diets for research purposes makes dietary assessment difficult. Dietary practices that increase zinc bioavailability, the consumption of foods fortified with zinc or low‐dose supplementation are strategies that should be considered for improving the zinc status of vegetarians with low zinc intakes or serum zinc concentrations at the lower end of the reference range. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry