Effects of compressive stresses on torsional fatigue

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is the dominant failure mode in properly installed and maintained ball and roller element bearings. Lundberg and Palmgren in their seminal publication indicated that this failure is due to the alternating component of shear stress. Thus, torsional fatigue experiments have been used to predict the RCF behavior of bearing materials. In non-conformal contacts, due to Hertzian pressure the contact experiences large compressive stresses. Hence, it is critical to take into account the effect of these large compressive stresses in torsional fatigue to better simulate RCF conditions. This paper presents an investigation of torsional fatigue of bearing steels, while the effects of combined compressive stress and its relevance to material behavior in rolling contact fatigue is examined. An MTS test rig was used to investigate the fatigue life of several bearing steels and their failure mechanisms were evaluated through fractography. Then the effects of compressive stresses on torsional fatigue were investigated. A set of custom designed clamp fixtures were designed, developed and used to apply Hertzian pressures of up to 2.5 GPa on the torsion specimens. The experimental results indicate that at high cycle fatigue, a combination of shear and biaxial compression, by application of Hertzian contact, is more detrimental to fatigue life than shear alone; however, as expected it has little to negligible effects in the low cycle fatigue regime. Also the failure mode changes such that fracture planes form a cup and cone pair with multiple internal cracks as opposed to helical planes observed in pure torsion which are formed by a single crack. A 3D finite element model (using ABAQUS) was developed to investigate the fatigue damage accumulation, crack initiation, and propagation in the material. The topology of steel microstructure is modeled employing a randomly generated Voronoi tessellation wherein each Voronoi cell represents a material grain and the boundaries between the cells are assumed to represent the weak plane in the steel matrix. Continuum damage mechanics (CDM) was used to model material degradation during the fatigue process. A comprehensive damage evolution equation is developed to account for the effect of mean stress on fatigue. The model predicts the fatigue lives and crack patterns successfully both in presence and absence of compressive stresses.     

预滚压对含缺陷轮轨材料滚动接触疲劳性能的影响

对含缺陷的未预滚压和预滚压车轮钢试样分别进行滚动接触疲劳试验,观察表面缺陷的形貌变化过程,分析预滚压和缺陷尺寸对轮轨材料滚动接触疲劳性能的影响。通过有限元方法分析缺陷附近材料的应力状态,通过多轴疲劳模型分析缺陷尺寸对滚动接触疲劳裂纹萌生规律的影响。试验结果表明:由于表层材料的塑性变形,未滚压车轮试样的缺陷尺寸随滚动周次的增加而减小;超过一定周次后,由于塑性变形不再累积,缺陷尺寸基本保持不变;预滚压处理通过减小表层材料的塑性变形,可抑制缺陷尺寸的减小,从而降低车轮试样的疲劳寿命;缺陷尺寸的增加会进一步降低预滚压试样的疲劳寿命;在油润滑条件下,预滚压和表面缺陷对车轮材料摩擦磨损性能没有显著影响。仿真结果表明,当缺陷尺寸从200μm增加至400μm,最大剪应力幅值从缺陷底部转移至缺陷中部,疲劳裂纹萌生位置也随之改变。     

Development of a Granular Cohesive Model for Rolling Contact Fatigue Analysis: Crystal Anisotropy Modeling

In rolling contact fatigue (RCF), failure mechanisms are known to be very sensitive to material microstructure. Yet, among the different numerical models developed to predict RCF life, few models use a microstructure representation. A granular cohesive finite element model has been developed to simulate progressive damage of a structure subject to RCF and to investigate failure initiation mechanisms. This article focuses on the implementation of crystal elasticity in the model. The numerical analysis of a representative volume element (RVE) validates the use of cubic elasticity to represent crystal behavior. The influence of the RVE size and the influence of boundary conditions applied on the RVE are evaluated in the finite element approximation framework. With regard to the implementation of cubic elasticity in the RCF model, the generation of stress singularities at triple junctions is first highlighted. Then the average value of the intergranular shear stress is proved to be mesh size independent and therefore can be used as damage criterion. Finally, the influence of crystal elasticity on microcrack distribution is presented.     

An Improved Approach for 3D Rolling Contact Fatigue Simulations with Microstructure Topology

Several 2D and 3D numerical models have been developed to investigate rolling contact fatigue (RCF) by employing a continuum damage mechanics approach coupled with an explicit representation of microstructure topology. However, the previous 3D models require significant computational effort compared to 2D models. This work presents a new approach wherein efficient computational strategies are implemented to accelerate the 3D RCF simulation. In order to reduce computational time, only the volume that is critically stressed during a rolling pass is modeled with an explicit representation of microstructure topology. Furthermore, discontinuities in the subsurface stress calculation in the previously developed models for line and circular contact loading are removed. Additionally, by incorporating a new integration algorithm for damage growth, the fatigue damage simulations under line contact are accelerated by a factor of nearly 13. The variation in fatigue lives and progression of simulated fatigue spalling under line contact obtained using the new model were similar to the previous model predictions and consistent with empirical observations. The model was then extended to incorporate elastic–plastic material behavior and used to investigate the effect of material plasticity on subsurface stress distribution and shear stress–strain behavior during repeated rolling Hertzian line contact. It is demonstrated that the computational improvements for reduced solution time and enhanced accuracy are indispensable in order to conduct investigations on the effects of advanced material behavior on RCF, such as plasticity.     

Analysis of the wheel/rail rolling contact fatigue of a high-speed train under the transient mechanism

The Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage of high-speed wheels is a main factor that affects railway safety. This paper presents a Finite element model (FEM) of high-speed transient rolling contact that considers kinetic parameters as initial conditions. This model is used to calculate wheel/rail RCF. With a CRH2 high-speed train as the research object, a head car model is established with the multibody dynamics software UM. The train is driven on a straight track at a speed of 300 km/h. Different contact geometric parameters, such as lateral displacement and attack angle, are obtained. A 3D high-speed transient elastic-plastic FEM of wheel/rail rolling contact is then developed by using ABAQUS with the initial dynamic contact geometric parameters. The actual geometries of the wheel tread and rail head as well as the elastic-plastic properties are considered in this model. This consideration makes the model highly suitable for solving 3D transient rolling contact behavior. The normal force, creep force, and contact area in the contact patch are solved and used in the fatigue model. Owing to the hunting movement of wheels, the wheel/rail force and lateral displacement change significantly at 0.2 and 0.5 s. The longitudinal and lateral creep force increase sharply with the increase in shear stress. The work states of the wheel/rail at 0.2 and 0.5 s easily reach the ratchet effect zone, and the fatigue index is large. The fatigue damage of the wheels is generally near the nominal rolling circle.     

Fatigue life estimation of FBGA memory device under vibration

This paper predicts the fatigue life of fine-pitch ball grid array (FBGA) solder joints in memory devices due to harmonic excitation through experiments and finite element analysis. Finite element models of the memory device with simplified solder joints and with detailed solder joints were developed as a global model and a local model, respectively. A global-local modeling technique was used in the finite element simulation to calculate the stress magnitude of solder joints in the memory device under vibration. Stress versus life (S-N) curve was generated for the memory devices under various vibration levels to derive the fatigue constants of solder material. The fatigue life of the memory device was then determined by using the Basquin equation and Miner’s rule. It was experimentally verified that the predicted fatigue life of the memory device under cumulative damage conditions matches the experimental results within reasonable accuracy.     

A Critique of Rolling Contact Fatigue Criteria for Bearing Rings with Hoop Stresses

Tensile residual and interference fit stresses not treated in classical bearing formulations are known to reduce bearing rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life. Recent modifications of such theory to account for these stresses have simply included them in the computation of a single yield stress type criterion—either maximum shear or equivalent stress. An alternative modification is proposed and demonstrated for fatigue crack initiation that recognizes the primary influence of the maximum range of shear stress but includes the effect of normal stress on the critical planes, as in other successful bulk fatigue criteria for multiaxial nonproportional stress cycle fatigue.     

New Stress-Based Fatigue Life Models for Ball and Roller Bearings

New stress-based life models are introduced to define “dynamic stress capacity” in rolling bearings for the first time. The generalized stress capacity equations are formulated, for both point and line contacts, in terms of distinct geometrical and materials parameters while the empirical constants are now material independent. Life equations are first developed for individual rolling element to race contacts and then statistically combined to estimate lives of both races, rolling elements, and, finally, the whole bearings for both ball and roller bearings. An estimate of the empirical constant for the ball bearing equation is derived by regression analysis of available experimental data. The applicable constant for roller bearings is then derived by relating the ball and roller bearing constants to the fundamental subsurface fatigue hypothesis applicable to both point and line contacts. For AISI 52100 bearing steel at room temperature, life predictions with the new stress-based equations are in complete agreement with those currently provided by widely used load-based formulations, where the empirical constant contains the elastic properties of AISI 52100 bearing steel. In addition to these life equations based on the magnitude and depth of maximum orthogonal subsurface shear stress and the volume of material stressed, a new model that eliminates life dependence on the depth of maximum orthogonal shear stress and relates life to only the subsurface maximum shear stress and the stressed volume is presented. Though the predicted life estimates with the currently used and newly introduced life models are comparable in the contact stress range of 2 to 3 GPa, the new model provides significantly higher lives at low contact stresses.     

Rolling Contact Fatigue Performance of Vibro-Mechanical Textured Surfaces

The rolling contact fatigue (RCF) performance of vibro-mechanical textured surfaces in a point elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) condition is investigated. Two dimple designs, small (100 μ m × 100 μ m) and large (240 μ m × 100 μ m), are compared with a nontextured sample. Experimental RCF tests show that the textured surfaces exhibit a significantly reduced number of cycles to failure compared with the nontextured sample for the high load, pure rolling conditions evaluated. In order to understand these results, numerical models are used to calculate the lubrication and contact pressure conditions and the subsurface stress distribution. The fatigue failure trends observed experimentally are compared with the simulation results with good agreement. It is determined that RCF performance is related to the presence and size of the generated dimple.     

Explicit finite element modeling of subsurface initiated spalling in rolling contacts

An explicit finite element model was developed to investigate crack initiation and spall formation in machine elements subject to rolling contact fatigue. The modeling approach utilizes continuum damage mechanics to capture the initiation and propagation of fatigue damage that leads to the formation of a surface spall. The material microstructure is modeled via a randomly generated Voronoi tessellation. The material parameters for the model were obtained independently from torsional fatigue life data for 52100 bearing steel. The life scatter (Weibull slope) and the spall geometry obtained from the model correlate well with experimental results available in the open literature.     

Contact fatigue life prediction of a bevel gear under spectrum loading

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) issues, such as pitting, might occur on bevel gears because load fluctuation induces considerable subsurface stress amplitudes. Such issues can dramatically affect the service life of associated machines. An accurate geometry model of a hypoid gear utilized in the main reducer of a heavy-duty vehicle is developed in this study with the commercial gear design software MASTA. Multiaxial stress–strain states are simulated with the finite element method, and the RCF life is predicted using the Brown–Miller–Morrow fatigue criterion. The patterns of fatigue life on the tooth surface are simulated under various loading levels, and the RCF S–N curve is numerically generated. Moreover, a typical torque–time history on the driven axle is described, followed by the construction of program load spectrum with the rain flow method and the Goodman mean stress equation. The effects of various fatigue damage accumulation rules on fatigue life are compared and discussed in detail. Predicted results reveal that the Miner linear rule provides the most optimistic result among the three selected rules, and the Manson bilinear rule produces the most conservative result.     

非线性超声检测镁合金疲劳的仿真和试验

为了利用非线性超声检测AZ31镁合金的早期疲劳损伤,通过现有的本构关系建立了非线性超声检测有限元模型,计算了材料疲劳引起的内部微缺陷长度、数量和宽度变化对非线性超声系数的影响.计算结果表明,材料疲劳产生的微缺陷是产生二次谐波的原因,有限元方法可以有效模拟镁合金材料的超声非线性效应.进行了两个镁合金疲劳试件的非线性超声在线检测试验,研究发现,在镁合金疲劳早期,超声非线性系数随疲劳加载周数单调增加,但在疲劳后期出现了超声非线性系数减小的现象.试验结果表明,超声非线性系数对疲劳早期损伤非常敏感,可以用来表征材料的早期疲劳损伤程度,有限元计算结果与试验结果相吻合.     

A Mathematical Model of Spalling Fatigue Failure in Rolling Contact

Variables affecting the fatigue life of a rolling contact are identified. A mathematical model of sub-surface and surface crack propagation is presented. The life to failure of volume elements in the vicinity of a defect (defect life) is formulated. A term “severity” of a microdefect has been defined. The model is characterized by the inclusion of bulk material parameters, defect characteristics and parameters of geometry, stress, lubrication and surface topography. A statistical expression for the life of an entire rolling body is based on the defect life formula. The new model comprises current standard bearing life prediction formulas as a special case.     

ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF CERAMIC BALLS LUBRICATED BY LUBRICANTS WITH EXTREME PRESSURE ADDITIVES

An experiment is conducted to investigate the effects of lubricant10#, which contains extreme pressure additives T304 and T305, on the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life of the contact pairs of a Si3N4 ceramic ball and a steel rod. The experimental investigation is carried out using a ball-rod RCF test rig. The results show that the extreme pressure additives increase the anti-contact-fatigue performance of ceramic balls; When the content of the additives varies from 1% to 5%, the increasing gradient of the RCF life curve decreases; And the oil sample with 1% T305 additive corresponds to the maximal gradient of the RCF life curve, with the RCF life being increased by about 10.77 times. The fatigue surface of the ceramic ball is analyzed with scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray electron dispersion analysis(EDAX), and the physical model of extreme pressure additives' increasing the RCF life of the ceramic ball is proposed. It is found that the extreme pressure additives form a corrosive film and a transfer film on the surface of the ceramic ball, which decrease the surface tangential stress, and to increase the surface energy is the most effective means for increasing the RCF life.     

10CrMo910钢的疲劳损伤演变与寿命估算

对在周期加载条件下运行的锅炉、压力容器、压力管道等设备,不可避免地产生低周疲劳的失效。本文从损伤力学基本理论出发,以10CrMo910钢作为研究对象,采用应力幅法测量材料的低周疲劳损伤,提出了低周疲劳各向同性连续损伤模型,在有效应力和应变等价假设基础上建立了低周疲劳损伤演变和寿命估算式。     

Aero-engine blade fatigue analysis based on nonlinear continuum damage model using neural networks

Fatigue life and reliability of aero-engine blade are always of important significance to flight safety.The establishment of damage model is one of the key factors in blade fatigue research.Conventiona...     

Rolling Contact Fatigue Evaluation of Advanced Bearing Steels with and Without the Oil Anti-Wear Additive Tricresyl Phosphate

The effect of the oil anti-wear additive tricresyl phosphate (TCP) on rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life of advanced bearing steels—AISI VIMVAR M50, CSS 42L, Pyrowear 675, and Cronidur 30 was investigated with silicon nitride balls at 177 °C and at a maximum Hertzian stress of 5.5 GPa. TCP at 1% additive concentration was blended into a synthetic polyol ester turbine engine lubricant basestock having a nominal viscosity of 3 cSt at 100 °C. Additionally, the basestock was fortified with the anti-oxidants dioctyl-diphenyl amine (DODPA) and phenyl-α-napthyl amine (PANA) at 1% concentration each. The presence of TCP has a measurable positive effect on RCF life and wear. Also, all the advanced bearing materials exhibited superior fatigue life compared to conventional bearing steel M50, both with and without TCP. The study indicates that current gas turbine lubricant formulations with TCP have positive effects on fatigue life and wear performance of M50, Pyrowear 675, CSS 42L, and Cronidur 30.     

A Theoretical Study of Residual Stress Effects on Fatigue Life Prediction

Recently, the trend has been toward the use of the full subsurface stress field in rolling element bearing fatigue life prediction (stress field-based life models). By using the stress field-based bearing life models, more accurate assessments of such things as fitting practice and thermal treatments on the bearing performance are achieved. However, one aspect missing in most models has been the consideration of the changing residual stress during operation of the bearing. This study was conducted to investigate the time dependent residual stress on contact fatigue life predictions.

This study concluded that the changes in residual stress during operation were most likely a fatigue reaction of the material to the pre-fatigue residual stress and cyclic contact stress fields. The materials fatigue response changes the instantaneous values of the material constants in most stress field-based life equations, thus making them in-calculable. As such, the pre-fatigue residual stress field should be used in the stress field-based models.     

润滑条件下中低碳空冷贝氏体钢的滚动滑动接触疲劳行为

研究了三种高强度或超高强度高韧性空冷贝氏体钢在油润滑条件下的接触疲劳行为。发现引起麻点剥落的疲劳裂纹不仅可在接触表面 ,也可以在距表面一定深度下的亚表面萌生 ,亚表面萌生裂纹的深度比理论计算最大剪切应力所在深度小近一个数量级 ,裂纹萌生由塑性变形和剪应力共同作用产生 ,一端向接触表面扩展 ,到达表面后润滑油被挤压进入裂纹中产生支点效果 ,另一端向最大剪应力深度扩展 ,最后在外力和润滑油支点共同作用下 ,由裂纹包围的金属屑被折断 ,形成疲劳剥落坑。钢的初始硬度或强度在低接触应力下对接触疲劳寿命影响不明显 ,在高接触应力下影响显著 ,初始硬度越高 ,接触疲劳寿命越长。     

Boundary Lubrication RCF Performance of 4 cSt Gas Turbine Engine Oils at 204 °C

The rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and wear performance of three qualified formulations of MIL-L-7808K (4 cSt at 100 °C) were evaluated using AISI VIM-VAR M50 steel. The RCF tester differentiated the fatigue life and wear performance of gas turbine engine lubricants in boundary lubrication regime. Tests were conducted using a ball-on-rod type RCF tester at a maximum Hertzian stress of 4.8 GPa and temperature of 204 °C. Although all the three lubricants meet the military specification, the RCF results suggest that life and wear in the boundary lubrication regime are significantly affected by the formulation. Changes in physical and chemical properties of post test lubricants such as viscosity, acid number and additive concentration were minimal. However, the lowest Fe concentration and COBRA reading, which is a measure of the electrical property of the lubricant, correlated with the highest RCF life and lowest wear.