Fast distributed multi-hop relative time synchronization protocol and estimators for wireless sensor networks

The challenging problem of time synchronization in wireless sensor networks is considered in this paper, where a new distributed protocol is proposed for both local and multi-hop synchronization. The receiver-to-receiver paradigm is used, which has the advantage of reducing the time-critical-path and thus improving the accuracy compared to common sender-to-receiver protocols. The protocol is fully distributed and does not rely on any fixed reference. The role of the reference is divided amongst all nodes, while timestamp exchange is integrated with synchronization signals (beacons). This enables fast acquisition of timestamps that are used as samples to estimate relative synchronization parameters. An appropriate model is used to derive maximum likelihood estimators (MLE) and the Cramer-Rao lower bounds (CRLB) for both the offset-only, and the joint offset/skew estimation. The model permits to directly estimating relative parameters without using or referring to a reference’ clock. The proposed protocol is extended to multi-hop environment, where local synchronization is performed proactively and the resulted estimates are transferred to the intermediate/end-point nodes on-demand, i.e. as soon as a multi-hop communication that needs synchronization is initiated. On-demand synchronization is targeted for multi-hop synchronization instead of the always-on global synchronization model, which avoids periodic and continuous propagation of synchronization signals beyond a single-hop. Extension of local MLE estimators is proposed to derive relative multi-hop estimators. The protocol is compared by simulation to some state-of-the-art protocols, and results show much faster convergence of the proposed protocol. The difference has been on the order of more than twice compared to CS-MNS, more than ten times compared to RBS, and more than twenty times compared to TPSN. Results also show scalability of the proposed protocol concerning the multi-hop synchronization. The error does not exceed few microseconds for as much as 10 hops in R4Syn, while in CS-MNS, and TPSN, it reaches few tens of microseconds. Implementation and tests of the protocol on real sensor motes confirm microsecond level precision even in multi-hop scenarios, and high stability (long lifetime) of the skew/offset model.     

基于分簇的多跳无线传感网络时间同步算法

针对典型的时间同步算法应用到多跳拓扑网络时存在时间同步精确度差、收敛速度慢、功耗较大等问题,文章提出一种基于分簇的多跳无线传感网络时间同步算法。该算法结合了TPSN算法和RBS算法的同步思想,摒弃了TPSN算法同步周期长的缺点而保留了其同步精确度高的优点,也解决了RBS同步开销大和难于应用到多跳网络的问题。该算法具有相当高的同步精度,并有效降低了同步功耗,具有一定的实用性。     

Secure routing in wireless sensor networks: attacks and countermeasures

We consider routing security in wireless sensor networks. Many sensor network routing protocols have been proposed, but none of them have been designed with security as a goal. We propose security goals for routing in sensor networks, show how attacks against ad-hoc and peer-to-peer networks can be adapted into powerful attacks against sensor networks, introduce two classes of novel attacks against sensor networks––sinkholes and HELLO floods, and analyze the security of all the major sensor network routing protocols. We describe crippling attacks against all of them and suggest countermeasures and design considerations. This is the first such analysis of secure routing in sensor networks.     

SYNC‐NET: distributed time synchronization in clustered sensor networks

Time synchronization is essential for several ad‐hoc network protocols and applications, such as TDMA scheduling and data aggregation. In this paper, we propose a time synchronization framework for clustered, multi‐hop sensor networks. We assume that relative node synchronization is sufficient, that is, consensus on one time value is not required. Our goal is to divide the network into connected synchronization regions (nodes within two‐hops) and perform inter‐regional synchronization in O(LLSync) × N_iter time, where O(LLSync) denotes the complexity of the underlying low‐level synchronization technique (used for single‐hop synchronization), and N_iter denotes the number of iterations where the low‐level synchronization protocol is invoked. Thus, our main objective is rapid convergence. We propose novel fully distributed protocols, SYNC‐IN and SYNC‐NET, for regional and network synchronization, respectively, and prove that N_iter is O(1) for all protocols. Our framework does not require any special node capabilities (e.g., being global positioning systems (GPS)‐enabled), or the presence of reference nodes in the network. Our framework is also independent of the particular clustering, inter‐cluster routing, and low‐level synchronization protocols. We formulate a density model for analyzing inter‐regional synchronization, and evaluate our protocols via extensive simulations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An efficient statistical approach for time synchronization in wireless sensor networks

In this paper, we propose a powerful method of estimating the model parameters for time synchronization in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Joint estimation of clock offset and clock skew has been proposed in the literature using the standard regression framework. Here, we claim that simple regression poorly estimates the parameters because of the inherent correlation among successive time readings between two sensors. We propose an alternative autoregressive model and use generalized least squares for estimating the relative offset and skew parameters. A computationally efficient Bayesian approach is also proposed for the parameter estimation considering correlated readings between two sensors. The effectiveness of the proposed approach compared with the earlier approach has been investigated through extensive simulation studies. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Random time source protocol in wireless sensor networks and synchronization in industrial environments

Reliability is a crucial aspect of time synchronization for industrial wireless applications in wireless sensor networks. Existing time synchronization algorithms often provide good synchronization in laboratory environments; however, outdoor environments with associated radio interference influence the performance of time synchronization. In this paper, we propose a random time source protocol for industrial wireless applications in wireless sensor network synchronization. Each synchronized node randomly selects its time source for each period in order to prevent reliance on a fixed time source because this may lead to resynchronization once the source fails. We have implemented the algorithm on the SIA2420 platform using TinyOS , and the results show the reliability of our protocol. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

用于传感器网络的高效分时洪泛时钟同步协议

针对在基于传统的洪泛机制的同步协议中，节点由于无法预测数据包的到达时间需要长时间处于监听状态而造成能源效率降低的问题，提出了一种可与大多数传感器网络MAC协议协同工作的全网同步协议，采用了全新的分时洪泛机制，动态给节点分配独一的发送和接收时隙，极大地降低了空闲监听时间。仿真结果表明其达到了很高的能源利用率，并能有效缩短收敛时间、减小频偏校正误差。     

无线传感器网络时间同步协议的实现

介绍了一种在IEEE1588协议基础上改进的时间同步算法的实现,通过精简的IEEE1588协议发送的follow—up报文,来降低ZigBee络的开销,同时改变了同步信息的发起者,由主节点换成从节点,从而适应了zigBee网络节点即时加入和即时离开的特点。通过实际试验测定,该算法适合于无线传感器网络节点的高精度时间同步。     

分簇型无线传感器网络时间同步机制的研究

提出了一种基于分簇型网络结构的时间同步算法。算法的主要思想是通过在簇建立阶段利用LEACH优化算法优化网络拓扑结构,降低网络的跳数,从而降低了时间同步精度由于跳数增加而导致的误差积累,为时间同步算法提供一个良好的网络结构。在LEACH优化算法中,簇首选取机制融入簇首节点的剩余能量和密度因子,并且提出了助理簇首节点用以均衡簇首节点的能量消耗。同时在时间同步阶段,采用双向时间同步机制和单向广播时间机制。实验仿真证明,提出的时间同步算法降低了网路的跳数,提高了时间同步精度,降低了节点的能量消耗,提高了网路的运行时间,具有一定的实用价值。     

Proactive mitigation of impact of wormholes and sinkholes on routing security in energy-efficient wireless sensor networks

Sensor networks are deployed in a variety of environments for unattended operation. In a hostile terrain, sensor nodes are vulnerable to node capture and cryptographic material compromise. Compromised nodes can be used for launching wormhole and sinkhole attacks in order to prevent sensitive data from reaching intended destinations. Our objective in this paper is mitigating the impact of undetected compromised nodes on routing. To this end, we develop metrics for quantifying risk of paths in a network. We then introduce a novel routing approach: Secure-Path Routing (SPR) that uses expected path risk as a parameter in routing. Quantified path risk values are used in routing to reduce traffic flow over nodes that have high expected vulnerability. Selecting low risk routes may lead to the choice of energy-expensive routes. Thus, we develop algorithms for balancing risk with other path selection parameters, including energy consumption. We conduct simulation experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of our approach and study the tradeoff between security and energy. Simulation shows that SPR can be quite effective at increasing traffic flow over legitimate routes and that the impact of SPR on network lifetime is negligible.

基于移动参考节点的无线传感器时钟同步方法

现有对无线传感器网络节点中的时钟同步方法往往通过固定参考节点传递同步信息完成同步。对于固定参考节点通信范围外的节点,需要同步信息在节点间的多跳传输,这造成时间误差的累积以及节点多跳传输的能量损耗,从而影响同步的精度和网络能耗。为解决此问题,提出了基于移动参考节点和最优移动路径的时钟同步方法。首先,采用正六边形的蜂窝覆盖技术选取最优的时钟同步点。其次,结合最优覆盖和选址问题的数学模型,设计最短移动距离的路径。最后,提出了基于MAC层标记多个时间戳实现低能耗单跳同步的机制。与现有方法的实验对比表明,该方法提高了同步时间精度,并降低了通信能耗。     

Prediction-based energy map for wireless sensor networks

A fundamental issue in the design of a wireless sensor network is to devise mechanisms to make efficient use of its energy, and thus, extend its lifetime. The information about the amount of available energy in each part of the network is called the energy map and can be useful to increase the lifetime of the network. In this paper, we address the problem of constructing the energy map of a wireless sensor network using prediction-based approach. Simulation results compare the performance of a prediction-based approach with a naive one in which no prediction is used. Results show that the prediction-based approach outperforms the naive in a variety of parameters. We also investigate the possibility of sampling the energy information in some nodes in the network in order to diminish the number of energy information packets. Results show that the use of sampling techniques produce more constant error curves.     

基于移动模型的水下传感器网络时间同步算法

水下传感器网络具有高时延、移动性的特点。现有时间同步算法在网络移动性方面考虑不足,时间同步参数计算精度不高。针对该问题,首先分析网络移动性对时间同步参数计算的影响,建立节点移动模型,并在此基础上推导出时间同步参数计算方程;进而提出一种能够应用于水下高时延网络的时间同步算法MM-sync。实验结果表明,与现有算法相比,MM-sync能够在通信量较小的基础上达到较高的精确度,适用于高密度快速运动的水下传感器网络。     

Clock synchronization for wireless sensor networks: a survey

Recent advances in micro-electromechanical (MEMS) technology have led to the development of small, low-cost, and low-power sensors. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are large-scale networks of such sensors, dedicated to observing and monitoring various aspects of the physical world. In such networks, data from each sensor is agglomerated using data fusion to form a single meaningful result, which makes time synchronization between sensors highly desirable. This paper surveys and evaluates existing clock synchronization protocols based on a palette of factors like precision, accuracy, cost, and complexity. The design considerations presented here can help developers either in choosing an existing synchronization protocol or in defining a new protocol that is best suited to the specific needs of a sensor-network application. Finally, the survey provides a valuable framework by which designers can compare new and existing synchronization protocols.     

Secure time synchronization protocols for wireless sensor networks

Time synchronization is essential in wireless sensor networks as it is needed by many applications for basic communication. The inherent characteristics of sensor networks do not permit simply applying traditional time synchronization algorithms. Therefore, many new time synchronization algorithms have been proposed, and a few of them provide security measures against various degrees of attacks. In this article we review the most commonly used time synchronization algorithms and evaluate these algorithms based on factors such as their countermeasures against various attacks and the types of techniques used.     

传输网定时同步和互联网时间同步

传输网的定时同步是电信网络的物理层需求，而互联网的时间同步则是通过应用层上网络时间协议(NTP)来实现，服务于互联网上的应用层需求。两者的网络结构、实现和功能均有很大不同。     

基于扩散机制的无线传感器网络时间同步协议

针对当前无线传感器网络时间同步协议普遍存在抗毁能力不足的缺陷,提出了一种基于扩散机制的无线传感器网络时间同步协议,全局时间通过邻居节点间定时随机交换时戳信息维护,取消同步发起节点在同步网络中可能带来的不安全隐患,实现同步网络拓扑最优.同时利用容错、时分等策略进一步提高同步网络的抗毁性能.通过对典型无线传感器节点的实际测试表明,该协议在抗毁能力、同步精度、可扩展能力等方面均取得了较好结果.     

Near optimal cluster-head selection for wireless sensor networks

Clustering in wireless sensor networks is an effective way to save energy and reuse band- width. To our best knowledge, most of the clustering protocols proposed in literature are of a dynamic type, where cluster heads are selected in each period, followed by cluster formation. In this paper, a new static type clustering method called Hausdorff clustering, which is based on the location of sensor nodes as well as communication efficiency and network connectivity, is proposed. The cluster head, however, is rotated within the cluster by a fuzzy logic algorithm that optimizes the network lifetime. Simulation results show that this approach can significantly increase the lifetime of the sensor network.