Genotypic and environmentally derived variation in the cell wall composition of Miscanthus in relation to its use as a biomass feedstock

Fifteen Miscanthus genotypes grown in five locations across Europe were analysed to investigate the influence of genetic and environmental factors on cell wall composition. Chemometric techniques combining near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) and conventional chemical analyses were used to construct calibration models for determination of acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) from sample spectra. Results generated were subsequently converted to lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose content and used to assess the genetic and environmental variation in cell wall composition of Miscanthus and to identify genotypes which display quality traits suitable for exploitation in a range of energy conversion systems. The NIRS calibration models developed were found to predict concentrations with a good degree of accuracy based on the coefficient of determination (R²), standard error of calibration (SEC), and standard error of cross-validation (SECV) values. Across all sites mean lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose values in the winter harvest ranged from 76–115 g kg^?1, 412–529 g kg^?1, and 235–338 g kg^?1 respectively. Overall, of the 15 genotypes Miscanthus x giganteus and Miscanthus sacchariflorus contained higher lignin and cellulose concentrations in the winter harvest. The degree of observed genotypic variation in cell wall composition indicates good potential for plant breeding and matching feedstocks to be optimised to different energy conversion processes.     

Conceptual design and modelling of the Steam-Iron process and fuel cell integrated system

The Steam-Iron process, based on the redox reaction of iron oxides (Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂ ↔ 3Fe + 4H₂O), is an interesting alternative to other methods of storing and generating pure hydrogen. In order to evaluate the ability of the Steam-Iron process to supply hydrogen to a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), a mathematical model for the oxidation process in a fixed bed reactor has been developed and is used to estimate the behaviour of the reactor under various operating conditions (e.g. amount of iron, steam flow rate, temperature). As a result of the simulations, information is provided for the preliminary design of the reactor and the selection of optimal reaction conditions. Furthermore, we have shown that the Steam-Iron reactor can be successfully integrated with an SOFC, and two system options have been explored to determine the overall system efficiency.     

Improved performance of a dye-sensitized solar cell using a TiO2/ZnO/Eosin Y electrode

TiO₂/ZnO/Eosin Y structure films were prepared by a one-step cathodic electrodeposition method and used as a photoanode in a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC). Using this TiO₂/ZnO/Eosin Y electrode in DSSC, the degradation of the cell with time was reduced and I_SC, V_OC and fill factor values were increased. The use of a thin ZnO layer, permitted the formation of an energy barrier at the electrode/electrolyte interface, thus reducing recombination rate and improving cell performance. In addition, the adsorbed dye molecules prepared by one-step cathodic electrodeposition with ZnO were very stable compared with that prepared by conventional immersing method, as evidenced by UV/vis absorption spectroscopy measurements.     

Comparison among various energy management strategies for reducing hydrogen consumption in a hybrid fuel cell/supercapacitor/battery system

The aim of this study is to introduce a comprehensive comparison of various energy management strategies of fuel cell/supercapacitor/battery storage systems. These strategies are utilized to manage the energy demand response of hybrid systems, in an optimal way, under highly fluctuating load condition. Two novel strategies based on salp swarm algorithm (SSA) and mine-blast optimization are proposed. The outcomes of these strategies are compared with commonly used strategies like fuzzy logic control, classical proportional integral control, the state machine, equivalent fuel consumption minimization, maximization, external energy maximization, and equivalent consumption minimization. Hydrogen fuel economy and overall efficiency are used for the comparison of these different strategies. Results demonstrate that the proposed SSA management strategy performed best compared with all other used strategies in terms of hydrogen fuel economy and overall efficiency. The minimum consumed hydrogen and maximum efficiency are found 19.4 gm and 85.61%, respectively.     

Comparison of control schemes for a fuel cell hybrid tramway integrating two dc/dc converters

This paper describes a comparative study of two control schemes for the energy management system of a hybrid tramway powered by a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell (FC) and an Ni-MH battery. The hybrid system was designed for a real surface tramway of 400 kW. It is composed of a PEM FC system with a unidirectional dc/dc boost converter (FC converter) and a rechargeable Ni-MH battery with a bidirectional dc/dc converter (battery converter), both of which are coupled to a traction dc bus. The PEM FC and Ni-MH battery models were designed from commercially available components.     

Performance analysis of a PEM fuel cell unit in a solar–hydrogen system

In this paper, energy and exergy analyses for a 1.2 kWp Nexa PEM fuel cell unit in a solar-based hydrogen production system is undertaken to investigate the performance of the system for different operating conditions using experimental setup and thermodynamic model. From the model results, it is found that there are reductions in energy and exergy efficiencies (about 14%) with increase in current density. These are consistent with the experimental data for the same operating conditions. A parametric study on the system and its parameters is undertaken to investigate the changes in the efficiencies for variations in temperature, pressure and anode stoichiometry. The energy and exergy efficiencies increase with pressure by 23% and 15%, respectively. No noticeable changes are observed in energy and exergy efficiencies with increase in temperature. The energy and exergy efficiencies decrease with increase in anode stoichiometry by 17% and 14%, respectively. These observations are reported for the given range of current density as 0.047–0.4 A/cm². The results and analyses show that the PEM fuel-cell system has lower exergy efficiencies than the corresponding energy efficiencies due to the irreversibilities that are not considered by energy analysis. In comparison with experimental data, the model is accurate in predicting the performance of the proposed fuel-cell system. The parametric and multivariable analyses show that the option of selecting appropriate set of conditions plays a significant role in improving performance of existing fuel-cell systems.     

Quantification of in situ temperature measurements on a PBI-based high temperature PEMFC unit cell

The temperature is a very important operating parameter for all types of fuel cells. In the present work distributed in situ temperature measurements are presented on a polybenzimidazole based high temperature PEM fuel cell (HT-PEM). A total of 16 T-type thermocouples were embedded on both the anode and cathode flow plates. The purpose of this study is to investigate the feasibility of the proposed temperature characterization method and to identify the temperature distribution on an operating HT-PEM in various modes of operation, including a 700 h sensors durability test. The embedded sensors showed minimal influence on cell performance, this difference seen in performance is believed to be caused by different bipolar plate materials. The measurement method is suitable for obtaining detailed data for validation of computational models, moreover the results indicate that the method can be used as a degradation tool, as it is possible to locate areas exposed to degradation, both in plane and between the anode and cathode.     

Fabrication of n-Cu2O electrodes with higher energy conversion efficiency in a photoelectrochemical cell

We observed an n-type photoresponse in cuprous oxide films, which were prepared by a simple method of immersing copper plates in a HCl solution of 3 pH at 40°C temperature, when they were used in a PEC cell. This photoresponse was much higher than the previously published values for n-Cu₂O electrodes which were prepared by other methods. The photocurrent obtained was in the order of 0.3 mA/cm² when the cell was illuminated with light intensity of 50 mW/cm². (The semiconductor electrode was biased to get a zero dark current.) The power conversion efficiency of the cell was 0.01%. The maximum quantum efficiency obtained was 15%. It is hoped that these values could be improved with a better understanding of the photoelectrochemical properties of the cell.     

In situ measurement of relative humidity in a PEM fuel cell using fibre Bragg grating sensors

We present measurements of relative humidity using a novel FBG sensor design embedded within the active area of a single cell. The fabrication, calibration, and installation methods for the Bragg grating based sensors are presented. The sensors are located at two distinct channel and land locations on both anode and cathode, and the measurements are compared with data from capacitive sensors located at the edges of the flow field. Experiments conducted under dynamic conditions show significant differences between land and channel locations, particularly on the cathode side, and suggest that it may not be appropriate to use RH measurements in the channel to infer the membrane hydration level on the cathode side during operation. The response time of the FBG sensor also allows resolution of RH transients associated with electro-osmotic drag and back diffusion. The study shows that these FBG sensors can be integrated in a PEM fuel cell with minimal impact on performance, and allow spatially and time resolved measurements in regions inaccessible by other techniques.     

Adaptive supervisory control strategy of a fuel cell/battery-powered city bus

This paper presents an adaptive supervisory control strategy for a fuel cell/battery-powered city bus to fulfill the complex road conditions in Beijing bus routes. An equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) is firstly proposed to optimize the fuel economy. The adaptive supervisory control strategy is exploited based on this, incorporating an estimating algorithm for the vehicle accessorial power, an algorithm for the battery charge-sustaining and a Recursive Least Squares (RLS) algorithm for fuel cell performance identification. Finally, an adaptive supervisory controller (ASC) considering the fuel consumption minimization, the battery charge-sustaining and the fuel cell durability has been implemented within the hybrid city buses. Results in the “China city bus typical cycle” testing and the demonstrational program of Beijing bus routes are presented, demonstrating that this approach provides an improvement of fuel economy along with robustness and ease of implementation. However, the fuel cell system does not leave much room for the optimal strategy to promote the fuel economy. Benefits may also result in a prolongation of the fuel cell working life, which needs to be verified in future.     

Experimental investigation of power management and control of a PV/wind/fuel cell/battery hybrid energy system microgrid

This paper presents an experimental study of a standalone hybrid microgrid system. The latter is dedicated to remote area applications. The system is a compound that utilizes renewable sources that are Wind Generator (WG), Solar Array (SA), Fuel Cell (FC) and Energy Storage System (ESS) using a battery. The power electronic converters play a very important role in the system; they optimize the control and energy management techniques of the various sources. For wind and solar subsystem, the speed and Single Input Fuzzy Logic (SIFL) controllers are used respectively to harvest the maximum power point tracking (MPPT). To maintain a balance of energy in the hybrid system, an energy management strategy based on the battery state of charge (SOC) has been developed and implemented experimentally. The AC output voltage regulation was achieved using a Proportional Integral (PI) controller to supply a resistive load with constant amplitude and frequency. According to the obtained performances, it was concluded that the proposed system is very promising for potential applications in hybrid renewable energy management systems.     

In-situ measurement of ethanol tolerance in an operating fuel cell

Ethanol is seen as an attractive option as a fuel for direct ethanol fuel cells and as a source for on-demand production of hydrogen in portable applications. While the effect of ethanol on in-situ electrode behavior has been studied previously, these efforts have mostly been limited to qualitative analysis. In alkaline fuel cells, several cathode catalysts, including Pt, Cu triazole, and Ag can be used. Here, we apply a methodology using a microfluidic fuel cell to analyze in-situ the performance of these cathodes as well as Pt anodes in the presence of ethanol and acetic acid, a common side product from ethanol oxidation. For a given concentration of ethanol (or acetic acid), the best cathode catalyst can be determined and the kinetic losses due to the presence of ethanol (or acetic acid) can be quantified. These experiments also yield information about power density losses from the presence of contaminants such as ethanol or acetic acid in an alkaline fuel cell. The methodology demonstrated in these experiments will enable in-situ screening of new cathodes with respect to contaminant tolerance and determining optimal operational conditions for alkaline ethanol fuel cells.     

An explicit J-V model of a solar cell for simple fill factor calculation

The J-V equation of a solar cell is implicit and requires iterative calculation to determine the fill factor and the maximum power point. Here an explicit model for J-V characteristic is proposed which is applicable to a large variety of solar cell. This model allows an easy estimation of fill factor from four simple measurements of the bias points corresponding to V_oc, J_sc, and any two voltage values lying between 0 and V_oc, where V_oc is the open circuit voltage and J_sc is the short circuit current density.     

Fuel sensor-less control of a liquid feed fuel cell under dynamic loading conditions for portable power sources (I)

This work presents a novel fuel sensor-less control scheme for a liquid feed fuel cell system that operates under dynamic loading conditions and is suitable for portable power sources. The proposed technique utilizes the operating characteristics of a fuel cell, such as voltage, current and power, to control the supply of liquid fuel and regulate its concentration. As verified by systematic experiments, this scheme controls effectively the supply of fuel under dynamic loading conditions and pushes the system toward higher power output. The primary features and advantages of sensor-less fuel control are as follows. When the fuel concentration sensor is excluded, the cost of a liquid feed fuel cell system is decreased and system volume and weight are reduced, thereby increasing specific energy density and design simplicity, and shortening system response time. Notably, temperature compensation for measurement data is unnecessary. With a decreased number of components, the control scheme improves durability and reliability of liquid feed fuel cells. These advantages will help commercialization of liquid feed fuel cells as portable power sources.     

Microbial coupled photocatalytic fuel cell with a double Z-scheme g-C3N4/ZnO/Bi4O5Br2 cathode for the degradation of different organic pollutants

A novel heterostructure of g-C₃N₄/ZnO/Bi₄O₅Br₂ (ZB-3) was designed, and used in the microbial coupled photocatalytic fuel cell (MPFC). It can effectively improve electron utilization efficiency and pollutant degradation using this double Z-scheme heterojunction structure. The current–time (I–t) curves demonstrated that the current density of ZB-3 was higher than that of ZnO, ZnO/Bi₄O₅Br₂ (ZB-1), g-C₃N₄/ZnO (ZB-2). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) indicated ZB-3 possessed the minimum charge-transfer resistance. This MPFC for degrading rhodamine B (RhB) and tetracycline (TC) under different conditions were developed using these materials. Even in the dark condition, MPFC with g-C₃N₄/ZnO/Bi₄O₅Br₂ demonstrated 93% and 82% degradation efficiency for RhB and TC, respectively. Furthermore, the electron transport mechanism of the MPFC and ZB-3 were proposed. It paves the approach for more efficient pollutant degradation via MFC photocatalysis.     

Use of flexible micro-temperature sensor to determine temperature in situ and to simulate a proton exchange membrane fuel cell

In this work, a micro-temperature sensor on a 40 μm flexible stainless-steel substrate was fabricated using micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Embedding a micro-temperature sensor in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) to monitor temperature will not damage the sensor during the experimental process. This investigation is the first to develop a micro-temperature sensor that can be placed anywhere between the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and the flow-channel plate inside a PEMFC. The simulated temperature is consistent with the experimentally determined temperature. The performance curve is also consistent with experimental results, revealing the accuracy of the simulation and the effectiveness of monitoring temperature inside a PEMFC.     

Experimental analysis of the effects of porous wall on flame stability and temperature distribution in a premixed natural gas/air combustion

In the present analysis, the flame stabilization and temperature distribution within a premixed burner contain porous wall are studied experimentally. The effects of inner diameter, length, and pore density of the porous wall, thermal load, equivalence ratio, and the inlet velocity of the fuel‐air mixture on these are studied. The fuel used in this study is natural gas and the porous wall is SiC (silicon carbide) ceramic foam. The experimental results clearly indicate that the axial temperature along the porous wall increases when the inner diameter of the porous wall decreases and its length increases. The porous wall temperature with an inner diameter of 40 mm, length of 66 mm, and pore density of 30 PPI (pores per inch) has the highest temperature among the examined states. The results of studying the effect of the porous wall on flame stability show that the flame stability limit has a direct relationship with the length and pore density of porous wall and an inverse relationship with the inner diameter of the porous wall. Also, it is found that the porous wall has the highest temperature causes the maximum flame stability limit.     

Analysis of Pt/C electrode performance in a flowing-electrolyte alkaline fuel cell

We characterize the performance of Pt/C-based electrodes under alkaline conditions using a microfluidic H₂/O₂ fuel cell as an analytical platform. Both anodes and cathodes were investigated as a function of electrode preparation procedures (i.e., hot pressing, acclimatization) and fuel cell operating parameters (i.e., electrolyte composition) via chronoamperometric and electrochemical impedance analyses. X-ray micro-computed tomography was employed to link electrode structure to performance. In addition, the flowing electrolyte stream is used to study the effects of carbonates on individual electrode and overall fuel cell performance. Our studies provide direct evidence that the performance of hydrogen-fueled room-temperature alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) is limited by transport processes to and from the anode primarily due to water formation. Furthermore, the presence of carbonate species in the electrolyte appears to impact only anode performance whereas cathode performance remains unchanged.     

Ex situ measurements of through-plane thermal conductivities in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell

In this paper thermal properties for materials typically used in the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) are reported. Thermal conductivities of Nafion membranes were measured ex situ at 20 °C to be 0.177 ± 0.008 and 0.254 ± 0.016 W K⁻¹ m⁻¹ for dry and maximally wetted membranes respectively. This paper also presents a methodology to determine the thermal conductivity of compressible materials as a function of applied load. This technique was used to measure the thermal conductivity of an uncoated SolviCore porous transport layer (PTL) at various compaction pressures. For the dry PTL at 4.6, 9.3 and 13.9 bar compaction pressures, the thermal conductivity was found to be 0.27, 0.36 and 0.40 W K⁻¹ m⁻¹ respectively and the thermal contact resistivity to the apparatus was determined to be 2.1, 1.8 and 1.1 × 10⁻⁴ m² K W⁻¹, respectively. It was shown that the thermal contact resistance between two PTLs is negligible compared to the apparatus’ thermal contact resistivity. For a humidified PTL, the thermal conductivity increases by up to 70% due to a residual liquid saturation of 25%.