退化结构最优化修复的成本效益分析

提出了一个针对老化结构修复的成本效益分析,考虑了建筑生命周期内的所有成本,如施工、失效、检测和基于状态的修复成本,也考虑了其基于状态或者时间的收益率。任何时候都可以对结构进行修复,并通过最大化其预期当前收益率来达到优化目的。这个方法不仅可以决定修复的最优次序和修复等级,而且可以决定最优使用寿命和可接受的失效率。数值算例证明:对修复合适的规划可以延长结构的使用寿命,直到预算超出预期的结构收益为止。如果不这样,结构将会退化失效,届时需评估其他的替代方法。     

LRFD for assessment of deteriorating existing structures

The deterioration of infrastructures is a widespread problem in many countries. In order to assess such structures for continued future service, simple and practical tools need to be developed for evaluating the time-dependent reliability and performance of the structures. This paper describes the concept of a resistance reduction factor due to degradation of a component to approximate a time-dependent reliability problem as a time-independent one. With the factor the time-varying resistance can be equivalently replaced with a time-invariant resistance, and load and resistance factors can be determined for the assessment applying simple AFOSM. An approximation method to determine the factor is proposed, and a numerical example shows that the target reliability level can be achieved fairly accurately using an approximate reduction factor. It is also demonstrated that the approximation method can be applied to estimate a resistance reduction factor including the cases when the strength of a component is restored to some extent by means of inspection and repair, and, accordingly, to evaluate the effect of inspection and repair on the reliability of the component.     

Spatial variability of damage and expected maintenance costsfor deteriorating RC structures

The paper develops a technique to predict life-cycle costs, using probabilistic information about the likelihood and extent of corrosion-induced cracking to reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The present paper focuses on the likelihood and extent of severe cracking as the criterion for the timing and cost of maintenance. The life-cycle cost and expected maintenance cost considers multiple repairs and various inspection intervals over the service life of the structural element. A repair cost function is also developed. Two common maintenance strategies are considered: repair and rehabilitation. It was found that for a 2% discount rate the benefits of delaying the timing of repairs outweigh the cost of increased extent of damage, for maintenance of a RC bridge deck.     

Reliability analysis of rigid-plastic structures by the static approach

Despite the inherent advantage of providing an upper bound on the system failure probability, P_f, methods for the reliability analysis of rigid-plastic structures based on the static theorem of plastic analysis have received very limited attention compared to those using kinematic theorems. The static approach is studied from different viewpoints in this paper, with particular attention given to its relationship to the kinematic approach. A search strategy based on mathematical programming is developed to minimize the upper bound for P_f. Many properties of this bound observed from numerical examples are readily explained in the basic variable space and the redundant force space. Guidelines for selecting the best set of redundant forces and the best starting points for searching are proposed. Of special interest are the equivalence of redundant force sets, and the use of multiple redundant sets.     

Value of information-based decision analysis of the optimal next inspection type for deteriorating structural systems

Deteriorating infrastructure systems require inspections and maintenance to ensure safe operation. System operators are often required to decide the optimal type of inspection to perform, where some inspections are of higher accuracy, and correspondingly higher cost. Life cycle analysis is typically used to determine the optimal inspection type. While life cycle analysis is effective at determining the optimal inspection type, it is also inefficient, requiring analysis of the entire decision sequence throughout the system life cycle. This paper presents an efficient methodology to approximate the decision of the optimal next inspection type without performing a life cycle analysis. This methodology determines the range of the value of information provided by only the next inspection. When the inspection cost is outside the range of the value of information then this method yields the decision of which inspection type to choose, negating the need for life cycle analysis. When the inspection cost for some inspection types lies within the bounds then a subsequent life cycle analysis is required, but perhaps some inspection types can be eliminated, simplifying the life cycle analysis. Thus, this method is complimentary to life cycle analysis, functioning as a quick preliminary assessment. The methodology is demonstrated through a numerical example of a corroding pipeline.     

Life-cycle performance of structures subject to multiple deterioration mechanisms

This paper studies structural deterioration as a result of the combined action of progressive degradation (e.g., corrosion, fatigue) and sudden events (e.g., earthquakes). The structural condition at a given time is measured in terms of the system’s remaining life, which is defined in practice by an appropriate structural performance indicator (e.g., inter-story drift). Structural reliability is evaluated against prescribed design and operation thresholds that can be used to establish limit states or intervention policies. It is assumed that sudden events conform to a compound point process with shock sizes and interarrival times that are independent and identically distributed random variables. Progressive deterioration is initially modeled as a deterministic function. Randomness is later included also as a shock process with times between random deterioration jumps described by a suitable deterministic function. Structural performance with time is modeled as a regenerative process and an expression for the limiting average performance is obtained. The model is illustrated with some examples and compared with similar models showing the importance of including the damage history when studying the life-cycle performance of infrastructure systems.     

PERMAS-RA/STRUREL system of programs for probabilistic reliability analysis

Programs for reliability analysis of structural, operational and other systems based on first- and second-order reliability concepts were made available as early as 1976 by the Technical University of Munich. In the meantime and since 1987 by RCP Consult GmbH (RCP) the programs have experienced many revisions, improvements and additional developments. The programs now cover the preparatory steps as well as the computational tasks in technical reliability, decision making under uncertainty and in statistical analysis. Important modules of strurel have also been embedded in the finite element program permas developed and maintained by INTES GmbH (INTES). The programs have been used in structural engineering and code making, in hydrology, operations research, financial planning and mathematical statistics and, in particular, in the nuclear power plant, offshore, ship, automotive and aerospace industry.     

Reliability-based condition assessment of deteriorating concrete bridges considering load redistribution

A wide variety of models have been proposed for estimating the reliability of highway bridges. For reinforced concrete bridges subjected to environmental attack, time-variant reliability methods have to be used. In this study, the condition of reinforced concrete girder bridges is assessed using a time-variant system reliability approach in which both load and resistance are time-variant quantities. Several system models are considered, including failure of any girder (series system) and failure of a specified number of adjacent girders (series-parallel system). Adaptive importance sampling is used to determine the cumulative-time system failure probability. An existing reinforced concrete T-beam bridge located near Pueblo, Colorado, is investigated. The influence of resistance degradation and post-failure load redistribution is included. A comparison of reliability estimates for several system models is given, including the influence of correlation among initial girder strengths. The results can be used as a guide for the selection of system models for bridge reliability analysis, identification of critical girders in a bridge system, and for the development of optimal reliability-based maintenance strategies for reinforced concrete highway bridges.     

Cost-benefit analysis of seismic-isolated structures with viscous damper based on loss estimation

This paper presents a methodology to utilise performance-based seismic design procedure for evaluating isolated structures with or without viscous dampers (VD) considering cost-benefit analysis. A non-linear four-story archetype of conventional steel structure, a lead-rubber-bearing isolated structure and a natural rubber-bearing isolated structure with the linear VD are compared with each other under far-field (FF) and near-field (NF) ground motions. Also, loss parameters, such as expected annualised loss, expected annualised repair time, expected annualised fatalities and expected annualised injuries based on loss estimation process, are utilised for evaluating the structures. Sensitivity analysis is used to study the effect of modelling uncertainty variations in the loss estimation process. It has been found that the effectivity of supplemental damping for low damping isolated structures increases in the NF comparing with the FF ground motions. Finally, the cost-benefit analysis is done to calculate payback period of investment for additional cost of the isolation system with or without the supplemental damping. The advantage of loss estimation is an improved method to evaluate the effectiveness of the isolation system in terms of loss parameters that are useful in the cost-benefit studies and for determining rational insurance premiums.     

Spatial time-dependent reliability analysis of corroding pretensioned prestressed concrete bridge girders

Accelerated pitting corrosion tests have been performed to obtain spatial and temporal maximum pit-depth data for prestressing wires. This data is then used to develop probabilistic models of pitting corrosion and strength capacity of 7-wire strands. The probabilistic model of pitting corrosion for strands is then combined with a non-linear Finite Element Analysis and probabilistic models of corrosion initiation and propagation to study the spatial and temporal effects of pitting corrosion on a typical pretensioned prestressed concrete bridge girder. The limit states considered are flexural strength and serviceability. The spatial time-dependent reliability analysis takes into account the uncertainties and variabilities related to material properties, dimensions, loads and corrosion parameters as well as the spatial variability of pitting corrosion of prestressing strands. Including the spatial variability of pitting corrosion in the reliability analysis increased both the probability of strength and serviceability failure when compared with a mid-span sectional analysis.     

Structural optimization and dynamic analysis for double-layer spherical reticulated shell structures

This paper is concerned with the geometrical optimum design and the aseismic analysis of double-layer reticulated shell structures. The characteristic of free vibration of reticulated shell structures, with respect to geometric parameter, is investigated. The variations of the eigenfrequency of shell structures, with respect to the ratio of height-to-span, span, grid division frequency and thickness of shell, are discussed. The Newmark method is used to calculate the stresses and displacements of the reticulated shell structure under earthquake action. The analysis results show that under a specified span, the eigenfrequency of the structure increases with the increase of the height-to-span ratio and then decreases afterwards. Therefore, there exists an optimum height-to-span ratio resulting in an optimum stiffness at the specified span. The optimum value of the ratio is found to be between 1/3 and 1/4 from the simulation study presented in this paper. At a specified height-to-span ratio, the increase of the value of structural span greatly reduces the eigenfrequency of the structure and then decreases the global stiffness of the structure. At the specified span and the specified height-to-span ratio, the eigenfrequency of the structure has a minor increase with the increase of the thickness and the grid division frequency of the reticulated shell structure. The partial double-layer reticulated shell structures have less stability compared with double-layer reticulated shell structures, but more stability in comparison with single-layer reticulated shell structures. The 1/6 partial double-layer reticulated shell structure has a best performance-to-price ratio. In other words, it has a higher buckling load, with smaller material consumption, compared with other partial double-layer reticulated shell structures. It is proposed to adopt the 1/6 partial double-layer reticulated shell structure in engineering if a double layer reticulated shell structure is required.     

Optimal placement of steel diagonal braces for upgrading the seismic capacity of existing structures and its comparison with optimal dampers

In this study, the optimal placement of X steel diagonal braces (SDBs) is presented to upgrade the seismic response of a planar building frame. The optimal placement is defined as the optimal size and location of the SDBs in a frame structure. Steady state response of the structure evaluated at the undamped fundamental natural frequency is defined by means of transfer functions that are independent of initial values and the input excitation. The objective functions are chosen as the amplitude of transfer function of the top displacement and the amplitude of transfer function of the base shear force evaluated at the undamped fundamental natural frequency of the structure. In the optimization procedure, the stiffness parameters of the added braces are described as the design variables. Principal optimality criteria are derived using Lagrange Multipliers Procedure. The obtained nonlinear equations are solved with “Steepest Direction Search Algorithm”. Sensitivities of the objective functions are determined analytically. A simplified algorithm for the state of the base shear force as the objective function is also proposed. The response of the structure is examined for both of the objective functions in terms of the transfer function. Seismic rehabilitation with SDBs is compared to the rehabilitation with viscous dampers. Therefore, a total equivalent stiffness parameter is defined so that the transfer function amplitude of the top displacement of building structure with SDB attains the same value with the transfer function amplitude of the top displacement of building structure with optimal dampers based on the top displacement. The time history analysis is performed using El Centro earthquake ground motion records to demonstrate the validity of the proposed design method. The results of the numerical procedure point out that the proposed procedure based on the transfer function of the base shear force and the top displacement can also be beneficial in the rehabilitation of seismic response of the structures.     

Finite difference method for nonlinear analysis of structures

The paper describes a sustained line of development of methods of nonlinear analysis of structural elements and frames using the finite difference method. Analysis for the ultimate load of beam-columns consisting of more than one material was the initial application. Subsequently, the method was extended to composite frames. In recent years, the problem of nonlinear response of structures exposed to fire has also been successfully solved. In all cases, good correlation with experiments has been obtained for deflections, ultimate loads and strains within the cross-section. Apart from use in design, the related computer programs have been successfully used for developing design aids.     

Cost-benefit and financial analyses of public housing in South Australia

Abstract

A set of analyses of public housing programmes in South Australia, using cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit; and cash flow criteria. Includes the results of statistical research and outlines discussions of the essential methodological issues in applying cost-benefit analyses to social housing policies. From a pragmatic perspective, and with regard to contingent conditions, the various analyses lead to a ranking of housing programmes in terms of their economic, social, and financial consequences.     

Risk based inspection planning for structural systems

Risk based inspection (RBI) planning for engineering systems is considered. Due to difficulties in formulating computationally tractable approaches for RBI for systems, most procedures hitherto have focused exclusively on individual components or have considered system effects in a very simplified manner only. Several studies have pointed to the importance of taking systems effect into account in inspection planning. Especially for large engineering systems it is not possible to identify cost optimal solutions if the various types of functional and statistical dependencies in the systems are not explicitly addressed. Based on new developments in RBI for individual components, the present paper presents an integral approach for the consideration of entire systems in inspection planning. The various aspects of dependencies in the systems are presented and discussed, followed by an introduction to the decision problems encountered in inspection and maintenance planning of structural systems. It is then shown how these decision problems can be consistently represented by decision theoretical models. The presentation of a practical procedure for the inspection planning for steel structures subject to fatigue concludes the paper.     

Seismic response analysis of structures with velocity-dependent dampers

This paper is concerned with seismic response analysis of structures with velocity-dependent passive energy dissipation devices, such as viscous and viscoelastic dampers. The modeling of a damper-brace component composed of a viscous or viscoelastic damper connecting with braces in series is presented. Several key parameters influencing the energy dissipation efficiency of such dampers in the damper-brace component are investigated and the relationships of the parameters and efficiency of the dampers are established. An equivalent model for the passive energy dissipation system is developed, which can significantly simplify the dynamic analysis of structures with the velocity-dependent dampers. The seismic responses of a single-story structure and a multi-story structure with the viscous and viscoelastic dampers are analyzed to verify the effectiveness of the passive energy dissipation devices for suppression of dynamic responses of structures and the reliability of the proposed simplified computational methods.     

Life-cycle cost analysis of reinforced concrete structures in marine environments

Chloride-induced corrosion of carbon steel reinforcement is the main cause of deterioration of reinforced concrete (RC) structures in marine environments. One of the ways to protect RC structures from corrosion is to use corrosion-resistant stainless steel reinforcing bars. However, stainless steel is between six and nine times more expensive than carbon steel. Thus, its use can only be justified on a life-cycle cost basis. In the paper a time-variant probabilistic model was presented to predict expected costs of repair and replacement which was then used to calculate life-cycle costs for RC structures in marine environments under different exposure conditions. Results of the life-cycle cost analysis can be applied to select optimal strategies improving durability of RC structures in marine environments, including the use of stainless steel reinforcement.     

Multiple cardinality constraints and automatic member grouping in the optimal design of steel framed structures

For structural optimization problems, such as the weight minimization of steel framed structures, the sizing design variables are often defined as the cross-sectional areas of the members, which are to be chosen from commercially available tables such as those provided by the American Institute of Steel Construction. Alternatively, the cross-section dimensions, b_f, t_f, d and t_w (which may be discrete or continuous) can be defined independently for each profile. This paper discusses the structural optimization problem of framed structures involving sizing design variables where a special genetic algorithm encoding is proposed in order to establish a strategy to discover ideal member grouping of members. Advantages in fabrication, checking, assembling, and welding, which are usually not explicitly included in the cost function, are thus expected. The adaptive penalty method (APM) previously developed by the authors is applied to enforce all other mechanical constraints considered in the structural optimization problems discussed in this paper.     

Finite element reliability and sensitivity analysis of structures using the multiplicative dimensional reduction method

Finite element reliability analysis (FERA) has been used to evaluate the reliability of structures. In FERA, approximate methods are commonly used to estimate the mean and variance of the structural response, while its probability distribution is primarily derived based on the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) method. This paper advances FERA by combining it with the multiplicative dimensional reduction method (M-DRM). The proposed M-DRM allows fairly accurate estimation of the statistical moments, as well as the probability distribution of the structural response. The distribution of the response is obtained using fractional moments, which are calculated from the M-DRM, along with the maximum entropy principle. The variance of the response, based on global sensitivity measures, is obtained as a by-product of the analysis. The proposed approach is integrated with the OpenSees software and is illustrated through examples of nonlinear finite element analyses of reinforced concrete and steel frames. The paper shows that the proposed approach is an accurate and efficient alternative for FERA.     

施工期钢筋混凝土结构安全分析的探讨

结构在施工过程中的平均风险率远高于使用期,对施工期钢筋混凝土结构进行安全分析与控制,就必须对施工期间荷载在部分完成的结构和支撑系统之间的传递进行分析与研究。本文通过具体的工程案例比较发现：现行的钢筋混凝土结构设计规范和施工规范不能对施工期钢筋混凝土结构的受力进行合理分析,因而无法对施工期结构的安全进行有效的控制。国内目前推广应用的部分施工期结构安全计算软件尚不能很好地对施工期钢筋混凝土结构进行受力分析,而清华大学土木工程系与北京第七建筑工程公司合作开发出一套人机交互的“施工期钢筋混凝土结构安全分析与控制软件-SAC”,能对施工期整个阶段每次施工步骤对各楼层受力的影响进行分析,具有一定的科学性。