Development of simple shear test for the measurement of work hardening

The simple shear test achieves large deformation without plastic instability in comparison with the uniaxial tensile test or the plane strain tensile test. However, the strain measurement can be very time consuming if the appropriate apparatus is not available. Moreover, the effect of specimen geometry on the measured work hardening has not been well investigated. The present work describes a simple shear test and a new strain extensometer based on a rotary angle transducer. FEM simulations and experimental work were carried out to evaluate the effect of specimen geometry on shear strain distribution, to study the effect of material parameters on the measured work hardening, and to correct the edge effect based on the geometry of test specimen. The correction method proposed for the simple shear test was validated experimentally.     

TC6钛合金动态压缩变形中“应力塌陷”的形成原因

采用分离式Hopkinson Bar技术和一种新型的中断动态试验方法对TC6钛合金进行了动态压缩试验,通过光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜分析了TC6钛合金变形到不同应变量时所产生绝热剪切带的微观形貌,通过与宏观力学响应相对应,研究了TC6钛合金在动态压缩变形中,绝热剪切带的形成过程及造成应力快速下降的原因。结果表明:在高应变率下,材料绝热剪切带的形成是一个由萌生、扩展、完全发展组成的过程;在应变率为2.5×10~3s~(-1)的动态压缩过程中,"应力塌陷"现象是由于材料内产生了大于一定尺寸的微裂纹所致。     

Thermo-mechanical modeling of orthogonal machining process by finite element analysis

A plane strain finite element method is used with a new material constitutive equation for 1020 steel to simulate orthogonal machining with continuous chip formation. Deformation of the workpiece material is treated as elastic–viscoplastic with isotropic strain hardening, and the numerical solution accounts for coupling between plastic deformation and the temperature field, including treatment of temperature-dependent material properties. To avoid numerical errors associated with large deformation of elements, automatic remeshing is used, with at least 15 rezonings required to achieve a satisfactory solution. Effects of the uncertainty in the constitutive model on the distributions of strain, stress and temperature around the shear zone are presented, and the model is validated by comparing average values of the predicted stress, strain, strain rate and temperature at the shear zone with experimental results. Parametric effects associated with cutting speed and initial work temperature are considered in the simulations.     

Determination of flow stress properties of machinable materials with help of simple compression and orthogonal machining test

This paper describes a possible method for predicting values of orthogonal metal cutting properties such as shear angle, cutting force etc., on a basis of the well known Hollomon equation, using a simple compression test in order to avoid any cutting experiments. There are two possibilities: the flow stress properties can be obtained from an independent material test; or by measuring the active and passive cutting forces from the orthogonal machining test itself. This paper is concerned with a material flow stress equation, including the effects of strain (ε), strain rate ( ) and temperature (T), which is one of the five equations that have to be solved in simulation analysis with the finite element method. In finding a solution for those five equations, it is necessary to dispose of flow stress properties by rearrangement of the Hollomon equation and so making it usable for cutting process investigation. The rearrangement is described in this paper.     

From the basic mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting toward the identification of the constitutive equation

This paper proposes a methodology to identify the material coefficients of constitutive equation within the practical range of stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature encountered in metal cutting. This methodology is based on analytical modeling of the orthogonal cutting process in conjunction with orthogonal cutting experiments. The basic mechanics governing the primary shear zone have been re-evaluated for continuous chip formation process. The stress, strain, strain rate and temperature fields have been theoretically derived leading to the expressions of the effective stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature on the main shear plane. Orthogonal cutting experiments with different cutting conditions provide an evaluation of theses physical quantities. Applying the least-square approximation techniques to the resulting values yields an estimation of the material coefficients of the constitutive equation. This methodology has been applied for different materials. The good agreement between the resulting models and those obtained using the compressive split Hopkinson bar (CSHB), where available, demonstrates the effectiveness of this methodology.     

钛合金（Ti—17）的动态力学性能和损伤特性

利用分离式Ｈｏｐｋｉｎｓｏｎ压杆冲击加载装置,采用圆柱和锥台两种试样,在高应变速率加载条件下研究Ｔｉ－１７合金的应力应变响应和动态损伤特征实验结果表明,动态屈服应力和断裂应力比静态相应值高宏观损伤对应变速率敏感,而对应力不敏感,出现宏观损伤的临界应变速率．试样微观解剖显示绝热剪切带是材料宏观损伤的先兆,试样主要沿剪切带发生破坏、在垂直加载轴的横截面上,绝热剪切带呈圆弧形,平行加载轴剖面上绝热剪切带沿最大剪切应力方向．锥台试样中绝热剪切带的应变从始点到终点逐渐减小     

交变载荷作用下平面应力状态焊接接头焊趾处应力应变理论解的推导

基于弹塑性力学理论计算对接接头交变载荷作用下焊趾处应力和应变,以准确预测交变载荷作用下平面应力状态对接接头焊趾处的应力和应变值为目标,考察了不同加载情况下平面应力状态对接接头焊趾处应力和应变的理论计算方法,并给出了交变载荷作用下平面应力状态对接接头焊趾处应力和应变的理论解.结果表明,在材料参数、载荷大小以及焊趾应力集中系数已知的前提下,根据提出的理论解的计算式可获得相应载荷时接头焊趾处的应力应变,为焊接接头在交变载荷下的疲劳失效预测提供理论指导.     

Hencky应力方程与主剪应力迹线上正应力方程的比较

众所周知 ,沿滑移线上正应力的变化规律可以用 Hencky应力方程描述 ,该方程仅适用于刚塑性平面应变问题。本文给出沿主剪应力迹线上的正应力方程 ,它不限于平面应变问题 ,也不限于最大剪应力迹线 ,并指出 Hencky应力方程仅为其特例。本文还给出利用主剪应力迹线上的正应力方程求解锥模薄壁管缩颈应力的实例。     

Study of cutting deformation in machining nickel-based alloy Inconel 718

During the process of high-speed machining nickel-based alloy the material presents serrated chips. An experiment involving quick-stop device was conducted. The chip root obtained in the experiment was presented in a metallographic graph. Through the analysis of metallographic graph, the physical features showed that shear angle is reduced and shear plane is converted into shear body when serrated chips formed were analyzed. Conditions under which a crack appeared and adiabatic shear that occurred were also analyzed. Based on the research, shear strain, shear strain rate and shear stress model in the adiabatic shear band were established. The effects of cutting parameters on character of the serrated chip were studied through observing chip metallographic graph.     

Experimental and numerical determination of texture evolution during deep drawing tests

This paper deals with the study of texture evolution during deep drawing tests. The aim of these tests is to obtain the whole range of deformation paths encountered in real industrial processes. Nakazima tests are carried out in order to obtain deformation states ranging from simple tension to equibiaxial stretching. Shear tests are also achieved in a simple shear setup developed for this work. The experimental strain fields are determined accurately with an optical measurement system based on the correlation of digital images. Texture measurements were carried out for the undeformed material and after each test. The texture evolution is compared to the texture obtained from an elastic–plastic rate-independent polycrystalline material model recently developed. Boundary conditions applied in the model reproduce the in-plane stretching of the material with an out-of-plane stress relaxation procedure in order to reach plane stress conditions.     

FEA modeling and simulation of shear localized chip formation in metal cutting

The finite element analysis (FEA) has been applied to model and simulate the chip formation and the shear localization phenomena in the metal cutting process. The updated Lagrangian formulation of plane strain condition is used in this study. A strain-hardening thermal-softening material model is used to simulate shear localized chip formation. Chip formation, shear banding, cutting forces, effects of tool rake angle on both shear angle and cutting forces, maximum shear stress and plastic strain fields, and distribution of effective stress on tool rake face are predicted by the finite element model. The initiation and extension of shear banding due to material's shear instability are also simulated. FEA was also used to predict and compare materials behaviors and chip formations of different workpiece materials in metal cutting. The predictions of the finite element analysis agreed well with the experimental measurements.     

光纤网络用于检测复合材料结构状态的实验研究

提出一种采用埋入式光纤传感器无损检测复合材料结构状态的新方法。将两种结构简单的新颖光纤传感网络埋入飞机的层状复合材料垂直尾翼试件,对结构内应变、应力以及由于低频部冲击造成的损伤等状态参数进行检测,实验结果显示了该方法的可行性。     

The Effects of Specimen Geometry on the Plastic Deformation of AA 2219-T8 Aluminum Alloy Under Dynamic Impact Loading

The effects of specimen geometry on shear strain localization in AA 2219-T8 aluminum alloy under dynamic impact loading were investigated. The alloy was machined into cylindrical, cuboidal and conical (frustum) test specimens. Both deformed and transformed adiabatic shear bands developed in the alloy during the impact loading. The critical strain rate for formation of the deformed band was determined to be 2500 s^?1 irrespective of the specimen geometry. The critical strain rate required for formation of transformed band is higher than 3000 s^?1 depending on the specimen geometry. The critical strain rate for formation of transformed bands is lowest (3000 s^?1) in the Ø5 mm × 5 mm cylindrical specimens and highest (> 6000 s^?1) in the conical specimens. The cylindrical specimens showed the greatest tendency to form transformed bands, whereas the conical specimen showed the least tendency. The shape of the shear bands on the impacted plane was also observed to be dependent on the specimen geometry. Whereas the shear bands on the compression plane of the conical specimens formed elongated cycles, two elliptical shaped shear bands facing each other were observed on the cylindrical specimens. Two parallel shear bands were observed on the compression planes of the cuboidal specimens. The dynamic stress–strain curves vary slightly with the specimen geometry. The cuboidal specimens exhibit higher tendency for strain hardening and higher maximum flow stress than the other specimens. The microstructure evolution leading to the formation of transformed bands is also discussed in this paper.     

Prediction of ductile fracture for advanced high strength steel with a new criterion: Experiments and simulation

This paper is concerned with prediction of the onset of ductile fracture by a newly proposed micro-mechanism-motivated macroscopic ductile fracture criterion in various stress states from shear to plane strain tension where most ductile fracture takes place in sheet metal forming processes. The new ductile fracture criterion (Lou et al., 2012) is calibrated by the equivalent plastic strain to fracture measured by the hybrid experimental–numerical method from four types of specimens manufactured from DP980 sheet whose fracture locus is eventually constructed. The calibrated criterion is utilized to construct the fracture locus of DP980. The constructed fracture locus is then implemented into the ABAQUS/Explicit code to predict the onset of ductile fracture for these three types of specimens. Three types of notched specimens are further designed for the validation of the ductile fracture criterion from uniaxial tension to plane strain tension by comparison of experimental results to those numerically predicted by the ductile fracture criterion. Three types of shear specimens are then utilized to validate predictability of the ductile fracture criterion between shear and uniaxial tension. The validation demonstrates that the ductile fracture criterion can accurately predict the onset of ductile fracture for these specimens. The comparison result with high accuracy reveals that the criterion can correctly describe ductile fracture behaviors of metals in various stress states from shear to the plane strain tension.     

Ti-6Al-4V合金两次侵彻弹着点损伤及组织演化

利用装甲钢平头弹丸垂直侵彻Ti-6A1-4V合金靶板,分析相同弹道学条件下,两次侵彻同一靶板不同位置材料的微观组织与弹着点损伤演化特征.研究靶板两次侵彻损伤程度和一次侵彻对再次侵彻造成的影响.结果表明,两次侵彻形成的剪切带都萌发于靶板与受力方向成45°角方位.第1次侵彻形成的剪切带较短,剪切带有弯折与扭转,剪切带在与受力方向成45°角萌发后沿浅表面向30°角方向扩展.第2次侵彻形成的剪切带较长,剪切带内孔洞相连,剪切带在与受力方向成45°角方位形成后向平行于受力方向纵深发展.第2次剪切损伤大于第1次剪切损伤的主要原因是第1次侵彻过程中靶板局部区域形成了绝热剪切带,从而引起了靶板材料强度增高、残余应力呈不均匀分布以及笫2次侵彻过程中残余应力与应力叠加、局部应变硬化以及应变率硬化所致.     

Modeling of microcrack formation in orthogonal machining

Researchers have observed formation of microcracks during metal cutting and attributed their occurrence to various phenomena. Shaw postulated that under the combined shear and normal stress conditions on shear plane, microcracks could occur when strain in the shear plane exceeds the failure limit of material. However, the phenomenon of microcrack formation is difficult to capture experimentally. Therefore, this paper presents a finite element (FE) model to simulate the microcrack formation during orthogonal cutting. The model has been validated by performing orthogonal micro-cutting experiments and error in cutting force prediction is less than 11.5%. The simulation helps identify locations at which microcracks are formed in the shear zone using the mathematical and FEA models. Furthermore, the contribution of the specific energy (energy/volume) associated with the microcrack formation to the total specific energy of the shear zone has been evaluated. Contribution of microcracks to specific shear zone energy is found to be in the range of 0–20% for AISI 1215 and 0–15% for AISI 1045 under different machining conditions.     

Accurate stress computation in plane strain tensile tests for sheet metal using experimental data

The advances achieved in phenomenological constitutive laws and their implementation in finite element codes for predicting material behavior during forming processes have motivated the research on material identification parameters in order to ensure prediction accuracy. New models require experimental points describing a bi-axial stress state for proper calibration, and the features of the plane strain tensile test have made it one of the most used. The test's principal inconvenience is the influence of the free edges on strain field homogeneity and stress computation.     

Calibration of anisotropic yield function by introducing plane strain test instead of equi-biaxial tensile test

The equi-biaxial tensile test is often required for parameter identification of anisotropic yield function and it demands the special testing technique or device. Instead of the equi-biaxial tensile test, the plane strain test carried out with the traditional uniaxial testing machine is suggested to provide the experimental data for calibration of anisotropic yield function. This simplified method by using plane strain test was adopted to identify the parameters of Yld2000-2d yield function for 5xxx aluminum alloy and AlMgSi alloy sheets. The predicted results of yield stresses, anisotropic coefficients and yield loci by the proposed method were very similar with the experimental data and those by the equi-biaxial tensile test. It is validated that the plane strain test is effective to provide experimental data instead of equi-biaxial tensile test for calibration of Yld2000-2d yield function.     

An enhanced constitutive material model for machining of Ti–6Al–4V alloy

Material failure due to adiabatic shear banding is a characteristic feature of chip formation in machining of Ti–6Al–4V material. In this paper, an enhanced Zerilli–Armstrong (Z-A) based material flow stress model is developed by accounting for the effects of material failure mechanisms such as voids and micro-cracks on the material flow strength during shear band formation. These effects are captured via a multiplicative failure function in the constitutive material flow stress model. The strain and strain rate dependence of the material failure mechanism are explicitly modeled via the failure function. The five unknown constants of the failure function are calibrated using cutting force data and the entire model is verified using separate force, chip segmentation frequency and tool–chip contact length data from orthogonal cutting experiments reported by 0035 and 0040. Model predictions of these quantities based on the enhanced material model are shown to be in good agreement with experiments over a wide range of cutting conditions.     

Ⅲ型裂纹试样的氢致滞后断裂

利用复合型(Ⅰ+Ⅲ型)试样研究了应力状态对氢致表观屈服应力(它是产生局部宏观塑性变形所需的外应力)的影响,探讨了Ⅲ型裂纹试样产生氢脆(即氢致裂纹)的可能性。结果表明,对Ⅲ型裂纹试样,即使严重充氢也不会使表观扭转屈服应力下降。从而也不会沿原裂纹面产生氢致滞后裂纹。对复合型试样,只有当K_Ⅰ本身就能使原裂纹面产生滞后塑性变形时才能使表观扭转屈服应力随K_Ⅰ增大而下降。 对充氢的纯Ⅲ型裂纹试样,当扭矩大于临界值后保持一定时间就能在和原裂纹面成3/4π或-45°的面上产生氢致滞后裂纹,它导致典型的沿晶断口。如充氢试样直接扭断则得沿原裂纹面断裂的平剪切断口。当钢的强度和氢含量低于临界值就不会产生沿3/4π面的滞后裂纹。计算了Ⅲ型裂纹应力场和氢应变场的互作用能。结果表明,在和原裂纹面成3/4π的诸平面上互作用能有极小值,从而导致氢向该面浓集而形成氢致滞后裂纹。