Effect of the Addition of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Flour on the In Vitro Digestibility of Starch and Undigestible Carbohydrates in Spaghetti

Abstract: Spaghetti is considered to be a slowly digestible starch food, a feature ruled by the particular physical properties of the product. Several studies have been reported to increase nutritional value of spaghetti, using legumes. We have studied the addition of common bean flour on the starch in vitro digestibility. Spaghetti was prepared with semolina and different concentrations of common bean flour (0%, 15%, 30%, and 45%, w/w). Proximate analysis, optimal cooking time, and cooking loss were estimated in crude spaghetti. Total, available, and resistant starches, indigestible fractions, and in vitro starch hydrolysis kinetics were accomplished in cooked spaghetti. Pasta with 30% and 45% of common bean flour showed higher values of protein. Particularly, the lowest cooking time was observed for composite spaghetti with 45% of common bean flour. There was a significant increase in cooking loss when common bean flour in the composite was added. Composite spaghetti samples with increasing common bean flour showed decreasing values of total starch but an important increase in the resistant starch (RS) level and indigestible insoluble fraction values. Plain pasta made with semolina showed the highest enzymatic hydrolysis rate, which decreased when common bean flour was added to the spaghetti. Spaghetti with a higher level of common bean flour was more slowly available, which may have positive implications for human health.     

Navy Bean Flour Particle Size and Protein Content Affect Cake Baking and Batter Quality1

Whole navy bean flour and its fine and coarse particle size fractions were used to completely replace wheat flour in cakes. Replacement of wheat flour with whole bean flour significantly increased the protein content. The protein content was adjusted to 3 levels with navy bean starch. The effect of navy bean flour and its fractions at 3 levels of protein on cake batter rheology and cake quality was studied and compared with wheat flour samples. Batters prepared from navy bean flour and its fractions had higher viscosity than the cake flour. Reducing the protein content by addition of starch significantly lowered the viscosity of cake batters. The whole navy bean flour and coarse bean fraction cakes were softer than cakes made with wheat flour but had reduced springiness. Principal component analysis showed a clear discrimination of cakes according to protein. It also showed that low protein navy bean flour cakes were similar to wheat flour cakes. Navy bean flour with protein content adjusted to the level of cake (wheat) flour has potential as a healthy alternative in gluten‐free cakes.     

PROCESSING AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF YAM BEANS (SPHENOSTYLIS STENOCARPA)

The proximate and selected functional properties of five flours from yam bean (YB) made after the grains were not processed (raw) and processed as boiled, fermented, roasted and malted, were determined. The functional properties were water and fat absorption, gelation, emulsification and whippability. An improvement was observed for protein content of flours processed beans compared to raw flour. Fermentation improved the oil content of the flour. The emulsifying and foaming capacities (50.7 and 40.20%, respectively) observed for raw flour were significantly higher than those for the flours from processed bean. Gelation was significantly (P < 0.05) increased and decreased by fermentation and malting of the bean, respectively. The water absorption capacities ranged from 131.9% in raw flour to 218.8% in flour boiled beans. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the fat absorption capacities of all flours except for the one of fermented beans (0.40 mL/g), which was significantly lower than the value (0.73 mL/g) obtained for the flour from boiled beans. Although a high foaming capacity was observed for raw flour, it was less stable when compared with that of the processed bean flours. Overall, YB flour was found to exhibit good functional properties, and has a great potential for use as an ingredient in selected food systems.     

Effects of Supplementation of Short Bread Cookies with Roasted Whole Navy Bean Flour and High Protein Flour

The quality, nutritional content and sensory acceptability of cookies supplemented with roasted whole navy bean flour and high protein bean flour were examined. The bean cookies tended to have lower spread factors and breaking strengths than the wheat flour control. The bean-supplemented cookies had higher protein content and quality than the control cookies. The control and 30% high protein flour-supplemented cookies had 7.04% and 9.42% protein and chemical scores of 27.11 and 66.41, respectively. The sensory scores were inversely related to the level of bean flour used.     

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF BEAN (PHASEOLUS VULGARIS) PROTEIN. IN VIVO VERSUS IN VITRO PROCEDURE

Digestibility (D), Biological Value (BV) and Net Protein Utilization (NPU) of whole bean flour and of the protein fractions glutelin (GLU), globulin (GLO), globulin GI (GI), albumin (ALB) and a protease inhibitor/lectin rich fraction (PIL) were determined, after autoclaving (121C, 15 min). For the whole bean flour both in vivo and in vitro procedures were used. For the in vivo assay a nitrogen balance with rats was performed. In vitro evaluation was based on the mean essential amino acid index (MEAAI) and in vitro protein digestibility. Results for the whole bean flour (BF) showed no statistical differences (p ≤ 0.01) between in vivo and in vitro techniques. In vitro digestibility ranged from 75–93% for the protein fractions and was 76% for the whole bean protein; biological value for the protein fractions ranged from 62–79%, and was 85% in the whole bean protein; calculated NPU ranged from 47–76% for the fractions, and was 65% for the whole bean protein.     

Development of Food Ingredients from Navy Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) by Roasting, Pin Milling, and Air Classification

Eight Navy bean samples, roasted between 92 and 125°C in a particle-to-particle heat exchanger, were ground to produce whole bean and hull flours. Dehulled bean flours were also separated into high protein (HPF) and high-starch fractions (HSF) by air classification. Whole bean flours contained 1.92% fat and 25.8% protein on the average. Hull flours contained between 31.2 and 50.2% dietary fiber, of which approximately 60% was crude fiber. Dehulled bean flour containing 26.8% protein was fractionated into HSF and HPF with average protein contents of 15.6 and 43.1%, respectively. Greater protein shift may be further accomplished by finer grinding and adjustment of the cut point. Residual trypsin inhibitor activity of HPF s ranged from 25–108 TIA/mg protein, down from 116 units in the raw control HPF. Hemagglutinins were inactivated from 110 HA units/mg to values ranging from 2.4–105 HA units/mg.     

Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition and properties of two amaranth species: starch and protein

The seeds of two Amaranth species were studied. The starch contents were 543 and 623 g kg^?1 while crude protein contents were 154 and 169 g kg^?1 for Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus seeds, respectively. The effect of several treatments, including cooking, popping and germination and flour air classification on the protein and starch properties were studied. Air classification decreased the starch content and increased the protein content, while heating increased the protein but did not affect the starch content. Germination decreased both starch and protein contents. Amylose content was increased by air classification and heating, but was not affected by germination. It was found that all treatments increased the starch swelling power and reduced the falling number. The resistant starch content was increased in the high protein flour (HPF) fraction and germinated flour compared with the raw flour, while its content decreased in the heat treated seed flours. These processes also affected the starch gelatinization temperature and peak viscosity. The thermal properties of the starch flour were not affected by air classification while gelatinization energy was decreased significantly (by 52.0 and 90.0% and by 70.0 and 95.0%) in cooked and popped A caudatus and A cruentus seed flours, respectively. The gelatinization energy was highest in germinated seeds dried at 90 °C with values of 2.67 and 3.87 J g^?1. Air classification reduced the level of all protein fractions. Thermal treatment decreased the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) and alcohol‐soluble fraction (prolamins) in both species. The levels of all fractions except the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) were reduced significantly in both species by germination, which mainly increased the amount of aspartic acid, serine and alanine, while the amounts of threonine, arginine and tyrosine decreased in both species. The polypeptide bands of the HPF in both species were unchanged compared with the raw seed flours, but more intensive coloured bands were observed. Thermal treatments eliminated major and minor bands above 35.0 KDa in both species. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influence of natural and controlled fermentations on α-galactosides, antinutrients and protein digestibility of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

The influence of natural fermentation (NF) and controlled fermentation (CF) in diminishing the content of antinutrients, α‐galactosides and increments in in vitro protein digestibility was investigated. The dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) flour was the substrate used in this research study. A decrease in raffinose oligosaccharide, antinutritional components and pH was observed in both types of fermentation. The natural lactic fermentation of ground beans produced significant increase (P < 0.05) in protein digestibility. For all varieties of beans, raffinose concentration reduced significantly to an undetectable level after 96 h of NF. CF did not have any significant effect on the reduction of the α‐galactosides content of the flours during fermentation. NF is an inexpensive method by which consumers can obtain good‐quality protein. Both types of fermentation diminish antinutrients and improve the nutritional value of the bean flour, and indicate the potential to use bean flour as an ingredient for fabricated foods.     

Wet Fractionation of Hard-to-Cook Bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.) Seeds and Characterization of Protein,Starch and Fibre Fractions

A 2³ factorial design with four replicates of the central trial was used to evaluate wet-fractionation conditions for complete use of hard-to-cook (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seeds. Tested variables were flour/water ratio (1:5, 1:7.5 and 1:10 w/v), pH (8, 9.5 and 11) and a soaking time (1, 2 and 3 h). The optimum conditions (1:10 w/v flour/water ratio; pH 8; and 1 h soaking time) were determined by the percentages of protein and starch recovery. Three fractions were obtained by the process: a protein isolate, starch fraction and fibrous residue. Isolate crude protein content was 73.03%; its in vitro digestibility was 76.7%, and its amino acids concentrations, except for methionine and cysteine, met essential amino acids requirements for preschool children and adults. Total starch content was 71.41% with an amylose content of 21.46% and an amylopectin content of 78.54%. Total dietary fibre in the fibrous residue was 42.12%, with 81.10% insoluble fibre and 18.91% soluble fibre. The protein isolate’s high protein content, the purity of the starch fraction and high proportion of insoluble fibre in the fibrous residues show wet fractionated hard-to-cook bean to be a promising source of functional ingredients with possible food industry applications.     

Separation and Characterisation of Starch‐rich Fractions from Wild‐type and Mutant Pea Seeds

Methods for milling and separation of flour from seeds of a normal (wild‐type) and two mutant (lam and r) types of pea (Pisum sativum L.) into starch‐rich and protein‐rich fractions are described. The methods entail using combinations of mills (100AFG, 50ZPS and 100UPZ) together with an air‐classification system based on a 50ATP air‐classifier, all run under a range of conditions to optimise the separation. The efficiency of separation was assessed as well as the economic advantages of the different systems. The best route for separation and fractionation was 2×100UPZ + 100AFG + 50ATP, while the most economic system that also gave good separation and fractionation was 2×100UPZ + 50ZPS + 50ATP, which had an energy consumption of 226 kWh/t. A novel method for determining the starch content within the high and low starch fractions is described. The method is based on a comparison between the gelatinisation enthalpy of starch in starch‐rich and in protein‐rich fractions with that for pure starch produced from the same flour, using differential scanning calorimetry. Qualitative assessments of the starch contents of the fractions were also made using microscopy and particle size distribution analysis. It is suggested that the starch‐rich fractions could be used as a relatively cheap raw material for non‐food applications.     

Effect of Processing of Sword Beans (Canavalia gladiata) on Physicochemical Properties of Starch

The effect of various processing methods on physico‐chemical properties of sword bean starch was studied. Seed grits and flour were cooked with and without soaking, wet‐autoclaved, and roasted. The changes in starch associated with these processing methods were studied by observing changes in granular structure, water solubility index, water absorption index, molecular size distribution and the degree of gelatinization estimated by differential scanning calorimetry. Intact, ungelatinized starch granules of raw and dry‐heat treated samples were observed under the light microscope. The starch granules were elliptical in shape and had an average length and breadth of 37–40 μm and 27 μm, respectively. Wet‐processed samples had the lowest water solubility, higher water absorption and lower gelatinization enthalpies than the raw bean flour, whereas the dry heat‐treated samples showed higher water solubility and higher gelatinization enthalpies. The starch molecular size distribution pattern showed a higher amount of high molecular size carbohydrates in dry heat‐treated samples and a large fraction of intermediate molecular size carbohydrates in the wet‐processed samples. The low molecular size carbohydrate content was low in wet‐processed samples where processing was done with excess water.     

淀粉原料焙炒对酱油制曲的影响

本研究以小麦、面粉为淀粉原料,采用焙炒技术,在最佳焙炒时间下分别比较经焙炒处理的小麦、面粉与未经处理的小麦、面粉对酱油成曲的蛋白酶活、氨肽酶活、淀粉酶活、纤维素酶活和氮溶指数（NSI）等理化指标的影响。同时,通过测定酱油大曲酶解液的总糖转化率和蛋白回收率,筛选最佳焙炒时间。实验表明,小麦、面粉的最佳焙炒时间均为20 min,在此条件下,焙炒处理对酱油成曲酶系及理化指标的影响较大。经焙炒的小麦所制成曲较生小麦成曲在中性蛋白酶活、氨肽酶活、纤维素酶活、孢子数和NSI分别提高了13.06%、12.58%、9.92%、37.04%和10.46%;经焙炒的面粉所制成曲较生面粉成曲在中性蛋白酶活、氨肽酶、纤维素酶活、孢子数和NSI分别提高了32.88%、28.17%、18.07%、13.04%和10.79%;但小麦、面粉焙炒后,酱油成曲淀粉酶活略有降低。综上,小麦和面粉的焙炒处理均对成曲的酶系增强及理化指标的提高有一定的促进作用。     

焙烤对甜荞关键组分及风味物质的影响研究进展

甜荞是一种高营养价值的功能性杂粮，焙烤是改善甜荞粉风味的一种工艺，其对甜荞的淀粉、蛋白、抗氧化物活性物质及风味物质有显著影响。其中，经过焙烤后的甜荞粉，淀粉糊化程度增加，糊化温度升高，结晶程度降低，淀粉颗粒结构被破坏；蛋白质性质发生变化，氨基酸含量增加；抗氧化活性物质含量随焙烤程度呈先增加后降低的趋势。此外，焙烤使甜荞粉风味丰富，增加了吡嗪类物质，使甜荞粉的风味中添加坚果味以及焦香味，甜荞粉的风味得到改善。本文首先从甜荞的焙烤工艺入手，重点回顾了焙烤过程对甜荞籽粒及甜荞粉的关键组分及风味物质的影响，并对影响甜荞焙烤品质的关键因素进行了分析，最后，对焙烤甜荞的应用前景进行了展望。     

Effect of processing on the protein nutritional value of Canavalia gladiata seeds

Evaluation of protein true digestibility (TD), biological value (BV), and net protein utilization (NPU) of diets containing mature sword bean (Canavalia gladiata), seed flour and grits were carried out with male Sprague-Dawley rats. The seed flour and grits were processed by soaking, cooking, soaking and cooking, autoclaving, and roasting. The TD of processed flour (cooked (84.8), soaked and cooked (76.2), autoclaved (82.0), roasted grits (64.5), and roasted flour (61.2)) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in the raw (51.4) and the soaked only grits (35.8). Soaking the grits decreased the TD. The BV of cooked grits and grits cooked after soaking were significantly higher than that of the other processed samples (p < 0.05). However, the BV of the diets containing cooked and soaked and cooked grits were not significantly different. The NPU of the cooked grits (39.4) and grits cooked after soaking (37.6) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of the other processed samples (autoclaved grits (31.0), roasted grits (19.5), roasted flour (10.8), and soaked only grits (1.6)). The NPU of all the processed samples were significantly lower than the reference casein (p < 0.05). The highest protein nutritional quality was obtained by either cooking the grits or by soaking and cooking the grits. In vitro protein digestibility measurements were not well correlated to the true digestibility.     

Tepary Bean Starch Part III: In vitro Digestibility

In vitro digestibility of starch from tepary bean, Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius, was determined in comparison with tepary bean flour and maize starch. The extent of sample hydrolysis by α-amylase was measured as mg reducing sugar (maltose) released per 100 mg substrate. After 2 h incubation at 37°C, values obtained for tepary starch, tepary flour and maize starch treated in various ways were as follows: raw 8.0, 8.6 and 25.6; freeze dried 2.6, 3.2 and 17.8; autoclaved 7.4, 5.7 and 27.7; cooked (15 min) 81.7, 23.1 and 87.8; resp. Raw tepary starch was more resistant to hydrolysis than maize starch due, perhaps, to differences in granule structure and amylose content. Freeze-drying and autoclaving slightly decreased digestibility of both tepary starch and flour. Cooking greatly increased susceptibility to hydrolysis for each substrate. The rate of increase was reduced after 15 min exposure to enzymes, and no appreciable difference was found between cooked tepary and maize starches.     

Starch and protein digestibility of newly released moth bean cultivars: Effect of soaking, dehulling, germination and pressure cooking

Effect of soaking (12 h), soaking (12 h) dehulling, germination (60 h) and pressure cooking on starch and protein digestibility of four varieties of moth bean, one Local commonly used by the farmers of the area and three newly released high yielding varieties, Jwala, RMO 225 and RMO 257, was studied. The starch digestibility of raw unprocessed moth bean cultivars differed significantly (P < 0.05) from 25.4-28.2 mg maltose released/g flour being the highest and lowest in RMO 257 and RMO 225, respectively. The protein digestibility differed significantly from 70.3-74.6 per cent among all the unprocessed varieties of moth bean. All the processing treatments namely soaking, dehulling, germination and pressure cooking brought about appreciable enhancement in protein digestibility (1-19%) over the control and starch digestibility (19-115%) of all the four moth bean cultivars. However, out of all the processing treatments, germination (60 h) of soaked seeds (12 h) was the most effective in bringing about improvement in digestibility of starch and protein followed by dehulling and soaking (12 h).     

Chemical composition,in vitro starch digestibility and amino acid analysis of a underexplored kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris. L.) grown in Chongqing,China

Chemical composition, mineral analysis, in vitro starch digestibility, and amino acid analysis of a kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris. L.), grown in Chongqing, China, were carried out in 2011. The results showed that the bean flour contained low reducing sugar (0.79%) and fat (2.72%), but high protein (24.8%) and starch (44.84%). Mineral analysis indicated high Mg and Ca contents with low Na/K ratio (0.04). The proportions of rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) were 39.64%, 41.46% and 18.90% respectively. And the variation in their proportions, along with prolonged heating time, showed increase in RDS, and decrease in SDS and RS, but the SDS + RS amount can still account for major parts (51.63%) of the total starch after a 90‐min pre‐cooking. Comparing the amino acid contents of the bean sample with recommended profile FAO/WHO/UNU (1985), the results fulfil the standard except threonine and lysine, whose contents are slightly lower than the requirements (0.93 and 0.85).     

蛋白质、脂肪对豆类理化特性及体外消化特性的影响

以鹰嘴豆、花芸豆为原料,制备了脱脂豆类粉、脱蛋白豆类粉及豆类淀粉;研究了天然蛋白质、脂肪对豆类粉理化特性、体外淀粉消化速率及估计血糖生成指数的影响。经不同处理后,样品在化学组成、溶解度、糊化特性等方面均有显著差异,尤以豆类粉和豆类淀粉之间的差异最为显著。试验结果表明豆类粉的淀粉水解速率低于脱脂豆类粉、脱蛋白豆类粉和豆类淀粉,蛋白质含量、蛋白质/淀粉与估计血糖生成指数(eGI)呈极显著负相关,脂肪含量、脂肪/淀粉与eGI无显著相关性。     

Functional and electrophoretic characteristics of faba bean (Vicia faba) flour proteins as affected by germination

Faba beans (Vicia faba) were germinated at room temperature for 3 and 6 days respectively. The effect of germination on the protein fractions, protein solubility index, PAGE pattern and some functional properties i.e. emulsification capacity (EC), foaming capacity (FC), foam stability (FS), water and fat absorption capacities of the flour was studied. Germination decreased albumins, globulins and prolamins at different levels but non protein nitrogen and glutelins were increased. The protein solubility index was high at both extreme pH values with an isoelectric point (IP) at pH of 4.4-4.5. The solubility of the protein slightly increased due to germination at all the pH values. PAGE pattern revealed on obvious dissociation and utilization for both fast and slow moving protein fractions during germination. Emulsification and foaming properties vs pH profile were similar to the pattern of solubility vs pH. Both properties were high at acidic and alkaline pH's and the minimum values were at pH 4 to 5. Germination process improved EC, FC and FS of the flour in comparison with that of dry bean flour. Water absorption of faba bean flours was improved during germination but the fat absorption markedly decreased.