High-oil-load encapsulation of medium-chain triglycerides and D-limonene mixture in modified starch by spray drying

Oil mixtures of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) and D-limonene in mixing ratios from 10 to 100 wt% were encapsulated in modified starch (wall material) by spray drying to produce oil-rich powders. The oil load (mass ratio of oil mixture to wall material) of the infeed emulsion markedly influenced the properties of the infeed liquid and the characteristics of the resulting powder. The viscosity of the infeed liquid and the particle size of the powder exponentially decreased with increasing oil load, while the emulsion droplet size in the infeed liquid increased. In addition, retention of D-limonene during spray drying also decreased markedly with increasing oil load. Irrespective of the different oil loads and concentrations of the wall material, D-limonene retention was well correlated with the emulsion droplet diameter of the infeed liquid. The encapsulation efficiency of the oil mixture exhibited a maximum value (almost 100%) at an oil load between 0.5 and 1.0, before decreasing at higher oil loads. At an oil load of 2.0, the encapsulation efficiency of D-limonene was reduced to almost zero, while around 40% of the initial MCT was encapsulated in the powder. The increase in oil load also led to increased amounts of surface oil of MCT and D-limonene in the resulting powder due to the increasing emulsion droplet diameter of the infeed liquids. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study proposes the microencapsulation of medium-chain triglycerides under high-oil-load conditions by spray drying. The powders prepared by this process provide significant benefits in terms of rapid energy conversion after consumption without accumulation in the body. Important quality factors of the powder products such as the encapsulation efficiency and the amount of surface oil were examined to understand the optimum process conditions for spray drying.     

Viscosity change in oil/water food emulsions prepared using a membrane emulsification system

This paper reports viscosity measurements of oil/water (O/W) monodispersed emulsions of different droplet diameters obtained in a membrane emulsification system. Hydrophilic microporous glass membranes of different pore diameters were used to prepare O/W emulsions. The results showed that the droplet diameter of the emulsions varied with the average pore diameter of the membrane. The average droplet diameter was found to be about five times greater than the average membrane pore diameter. A correlation was found for the relationship between the average droplet diameter and the emulsion viscosity. As the dispersed droplet size became smaller, the total surface area of the droplets increased. Therefore, the emulsion viscosity and the relative viscosity increased. Few studies have reported the viscosity of O/W emulsions with droplet diameter of 5 μm or more and an oil phase concentration of 10 vol% or less. In the present study a correlation between the droplet diameter and the emulsion viscosity was statistically established. ©     

Influence of chitosan and NaCl on physicochemical properties of low-acid tuna oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by non-ionic surfactant

An influence of low molecular weight (LMW) chitosan on physicochemical properties and stability of low-acid (pH 6) tuna oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by non-ionic surfactant (Tween 80) was studied. The mean droplet diameter, droplet charge (ζ-potential), creaming stability and microstructure of emulsions (5 wt% oil) were evaluated. The added chitosan was adsorbed on the surface of oil droplets stabilized by Tween 80 through electrostatic interactions. Such addition of chitosan at different concentrations (0–10 wt%) to emulsions showed slight effect on the mean droplet diameter. However, the degree of flocculation was a function of chitosan concentration assessed by emulsions' microstructure and creaming index. The impact of chitosan on the strength of the colloidal interaction between the emulsion droplets increased with increasing chitosan concentration. The mean diameter of droplet in emulsions increased with increasing NaCl because of the electrostatic screening effect. The addition of LMW chitosan could be performed to create tuna oil emulsions with low-acid to neutral character, as well as various physicochemical and stability properties suitable for health food products.     

Optimization of a gelled emulsion intended to supply ω-3 fatty acids into meat products by means of response surface methodology

The optimization of a gelled oil-in-water emulsion was performed for use as fat replacer in the formulation of ω-3 PUFA-enriched cooked meat products. The linseed oil content, carrageenan concentration and surfactant–oil ratio were properly combined in a surface response design for maximizing the hardness and minimizing the syneresis of the PUFA delivery system. The optimal formulation resulted in a gelled emulsion containing 40% of oil and 1.5% of carrageenan, keeping a surfactant–oil ratio of 0.003. The gel was applied as a partial fat replacer in a Bologna-type sausage and compared to the use of an O/W emulsion also enriched in ω-3. Both experimental sausages contributed with higher ω-3 PUFA content than the control. No sensory differences were found among formulations. The selected optimized gelled oil-in-water emulsion was demonstrated to be a suitable lipophilic delivery system for ω-3 PUFA compounds and applicable in food formulations as fat replacer.     

Effects of l‐lysine/l‐arginine on the emulsion stability,textural, rheological and microstructural characteristics of chicken sausages

The effects of l ‐lysine (Lys), l ‐arginine (Arg) and soya protein isolated (SPI) on the physicochemical properties of chicken sausages were investigated. The results showed that the addition of Lys/Arg significantly decreased total expressible fluid and expressible fat, but significantly increased hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness of chicken sausage. Moreover, Lys and Arg were more effective than SPI. Rheology indicated that Lys/Arg increased final storage modulus and final loss modulus. Also, scanning electron microscope and confocal laser scanning microscopy disclosed that Lys or Arg was conducive to the formation of regular and uniform oil droplet surrounded integrate membrane. Overall, Lys/Arg exhibited a potential in the preparation of emulsion‐type meat products.     

基于大豆多糖的复合乳液储藏稳定性研究

乳液是脂溶性生物活性化合物很好的包埋和输送载体,脂溶活性物质能够很好的包埋在油滴中,增强其在水相中的溶解度和稳定性。基于大豆多糖修饰的蛋白复合乳液具有更小更分散的油滴,在食品工业中应用前景广阔。在高温、高盐及酸性的工艺操作环境中,大豆酸溶蛋白(acid soluble soy protein,ASSP)/大豆多糖(soy soluble polysaccharides,SSPS)复合乳液的货架期是实现其有效利用的关键。本论文通过研究热处理、p H及盐离子等条件对O/W体系ASSP/SSPS复合乳液的影响,考察评价ASSP/SSPS复合乳液的贮藏稳定性。结果表明,热处理能够有效增强ASSP/SSPS乳液长期稳定性,受p H变化影响较小。当在p H值为3.0~4.0的范围贮藏时,ASSP/SSPS乳液的稳定性能最优越,基本不受盐离子的影响,并且储存60 d后乳液粒径基本不变。ASSP/SSPS复合乳液的透射电镜和扫描电镜研究可以看出,贮藏60 d后,因ASSP/SSPS的复合界面行为增强,乳液微滴表面形成了更稳定不可逆的ASSP/SSPS复合膜,乳液微滴分布均匀,粒径大小没有明显改变,粒径在268.92~315.26之间。文章通过对ASSP/SSPS复合乳液储存稳定性的系统分析,为复合乳液的工业化生产提供理论指导。     

超声波处理对大豆油预乳化效果的影响

该文考察超声功率大小对大豆油预乳化处理效果的影响、探讨超声波处理的作用机理,探寻提升乳化型肉类产品品质的新方法。将纯净水与大豆油按1∶1(体积比)混合,添加2 g/L酪蛋白酸钠,乳化均质后以不同功率的超声波间歇处理3 min,然后测定乳化活性和表观稳定性、乳液黏度等指标。结果表明,超声波处理对大豆油预乳化液的乳化活性、乳化稳定性有显著影响,超声功率为360 W时乳化性能最好、乳化性达到最大值59.95 m 2/g;超声波处理能增加乳液的黏度、减小乳滴的粒径、增加乳滴表面蛋白质的吸附量,从而增强了乳化效果。超声波处理是一种增加预乳化液的乳化性和乳化稳定性的有效手段。     

Nanoemulsions: Techniques for the preparation and the recent advances in their food applications

Nanoemulsions are the transparent or translucent type of emulsion having droplet sizes ranging from 20 to 500 nm. The stability and application of nanoemulsions depend on the droplet and physicochemical characteristics. The droplet characteristics are studied through the droplet size, droplet composition, droplet concentration, zeta potential, polydispersity, and interfacial tension. The physicochemical properties are studied by their optical property, rheological property, gravitational separation, droplet aggregation, Ostwald ripening, and chemical stability. The emulsifiers and surfactants aid in the emulsification process and are selected according to the requirements of emulsification methods and expected nanoemulsion quality. The methods used for nanoemulsion preparation can be broadly classified into high-energy and low-energy methods. The high-energy methods include high-pressure valve homogenization, high-pressure microfluidic homogenization, ultrasonic homogenization, and rotor-stator homogenization. Similarly, the low energy methods are phase inversion temperature, phase inversion composition, spontaneous emulsification, membrane emulsion, and solvent displacement/solvent evaporation method. The high-energy methods are rapid in comparison to low-energy methods and can handle a large volume of liquid. The low energy methods provide better control over droplet size. Nanoemulsions have broad applications in the food industry such as in the quality enhancement and shelf-life improvement of bakery products, dairy products, meat products, fruit and vegetable products, and also in probiotics and nutraceuticals.     

改性凹凸棒黏土/羧甲基壳聚糖协同稳定桉叶精油Pickering乳液制备及缓释抑菌性能

以油酸钠表面改性的凹凸棒黏土（modified-attapulgite,M-APT）与羧甲基壳聚糖（carboxy-methyl chitosan,CMCS）协同稳定制备桉叶精油Pickering乳液,通过乳液静置乳析、乳滴显微形貌及流变学性质,考察M-APT、CMCS质量分数及桉叶精油体积分数对乳液稳定性影响。结果表明,油酸钠改性使APT接触角θ从15.2°增大到83.7°,可不可逆吸附于油滴表面,乳滴粒径随M-APT质量分数增大而减小;亲水CMCS链自组装包封表面吸附M-APT粒子的油滴。乳液储存模量（G’）随CMCS质量分数增加明显增大,乳液稳定性增强。琼脂盘打孔法,对比考察纯桉叶精油和乳液对金黄色葡萄球菌和枯草芽孢杆菌的抑菌活性,发现乳液体系抑菌圈直径均略大于纯精油体系,这主要是因为M-APT吸附在油滴表面实现了对精油的包封,降低了其挥发性。菌类生长动力学实验也证实了这一结果,即M-APT/CMCS协同作用可实现对精油的包封稳定,提高其抑菌活性和实现长效缓释抑菌,这对拓展植物精油在生物抑菌剂方面的应用具有重要的参考价值。     

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FATS ON THE QUALITY OF GOAT MEAT PATTIES INCORPORATED WITH FULL-FAT SOY PASTE

Effect of different fats such as goat fat, chicken fat, combination of goat and chicken fat and refined mustard oil (RMO) were evaluated in goat meat patties (GMPs). Patties with 10% RMO contributed significantly ( P <  0.05) better emulsion stability compared with others. There were no significant effects of different fats on physicochemical and textural attributes of patties. Patties with RMO had significantly ( P <  0.05) lower cholesterol content than other groups. GMPs with RMO, chicken fat and chicken and goat fat combination rated higher for all sensory attributes than patties with goat fat, which had significantly ( P <  0.05) higher mouth coating and lower overall acceptability. Flavor and overall acceptability were higher in patties with chicken fat. Histological study showed improper dispersion of goat fat in continuous phase of meat protein matrix (emulsion) compared with others .

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Utilization of hard fats from goat, sheep and buffalo in emulsion-based meat products decreases emulsion stability because of its poor dispersibility, and consequently its cooking yield. Goat fat also contributes to a smeary and greasy mouth-coating problem and reduces the palatability of meat products. Alternatively, chicken fat disperses well in meat emulsion because of its high unsaturation and enhances the flavor of the products. However, the efficient utilization of goat fat is essential to support an economical goat meat production system and for developing meat products. The present study showed successful utilization of goat fat when combined with chicken fat, and the products had similar sensory attributes and acceptability as in meat products with chicken fat and refined mustard oil. This study would also help in better use of excess fat from spent hens in other meat products.     

Time- and temperature-dependent changes in the adsorbed layer on caseinate-stabilized emulsion droplets

Changes in composition of the adsorbed layer in sodium caseinate emulsions stored at different temperatures have been observed. These changes are, in part, dependent on the oil droplet phase (milk-fat or soybean oil). At storage temperatures below 15°C the milk-fat emulsion adsorbed layer exhibits a decrease in surface coverage as a result of casein molecule desorption. This was not observed for soybean oil emulsions. Above 15°C storage temperatures there is a time-dependent and temperature-dependent polymerization of casein molecules in both milk-fat and soybean oil emulsion droplet adsorbed layers. At temperatures below 15°C these changes are explained in terms of the different solid-fat contents of milk-fat and soybean oil. Above 15°C it is hypothesized that chemical changes in the adsorbed layer are taking place.     

STABILITY OF OIL-IN-WATER EMULSIONS. 1. Effects of Surface Tension, Level of Oil, Viscosity and Type of Meat Protein

SUMMARY– Surface tension responses for solutions of salt-soluble protein from cow meat, beef hearts, beef cheek meat, pork trim and pork cheek meat were found to follow the Type III curves assigned to surface-active agents. The stability of emulsions prepared utilizing salt-soluble protein of the meats was significantly affected by concentration of protein and level of oil. As either concentration of protein or of oil was increased, higher and more significant stability of the emulsions was observed. Emulsions prepared from protein of each type of meat had similar responses for stability. High and significant correlation was found between protein surface activity and emulsion stability. Little change in emulsion viscosity was found except at the upper protein and oil levels tested.     

Protein interactions in comminuted meat gels containing emulsified corn oil

Model comminuted meat gels incorporating corn oil droplets, emulsified either with salt-soluble meat proteins (SSMP) or with soy protein isolate (SPI), were prepared by heat treatment of meat paste at 90 °C, and their strength was evaluated by applying a uniaxial compression test. The presence of emulsified oil droplets resulted in a significant reduction of the gel network strength, the extent of decrease being independent of the type of protein emulsifier used. Gels prepared with SSMP, on the other hand, suffered a less pronounced structure disruption by oil droplet incorporation and the extent of disruption depended on the type of protein used for oil emulsification. Competitive adsorption studies in emulsions between SSMP and SPI indicated that the former may partly displace the latter from oil droplet surface, thus, offering binding sites to which the SSMP molecules of the gel network may become attached during the development of system structure.     

Physicochemical properties of a dressing-type o/w emulsion as influenced by orange pulp fiber incorporation

A low-in-oil dressing-type o/w emulsion incorporating a rich-in-fiber orange pulp commercial product, either in crude form or following comminution, was prepared and the rheological properties and physicochemical stability of the emulsion were studied. Interactions between the adsorbed at the droplet surfaces yolk proteins and the pulp surface constituents, possibly electrostatic in nature, resulted in extensive droplet aggregation. This was reflected in the dramatic increase of emulsion rheological parameter values, derived by applying the power or the Casson equation to shear stress-rate of shear data. Pulp incorporation resulted in an improvement of emulsion stability against creaming while the stability against droplet coalescence was only marginally affected. In addition, the rheological parameter values of the fortified with pulp emulsion exhibited an appreciable increase with storage, especially in the case of emulsions incorporating the crude pulp. These findings are combined with oil droplet or pulp particle size and ζ-potential data to probe the emulsion structure and explain its behavior during aging.     

Effects of bacteriostatic emulsifiers on stability of milk-based emulsions

For milk-based emulsion products such as canned coffee or tea, the addition of bacteriostatic emulsifiers is necessary to inhibiting the growth of heat-resistant sporeformers. Since bacteriostatic emulsifiers often cause the destabilization of emulsions, other type of emulsifiers, such as stability-enhancing ones, are necessary for the long-term stability of emulsions. Four milk-based emulsions were prepared from powdered milk combined with several types of emulsifiers. The long-term stability of emulsions, which was detected by the occurrence of a creaming layer after 3 months of storage, differed according to the composition of emulsifiers. To understand the reason for the differences in the stability of emulsions, particle size, distribution, ζ-potential, and the amount of proteins and phospholipids present in the cream layer (separated oil droplets) in the emulsions were measured. Only the amount of proteins adsorbed onto oil droplets was found to be closely related to the difference in emulsion stability, that is, the more proteins adsorbed, the higher the emulsion stability. SDS–PAGE analyses revealed that κ-casein and β-lactoglobulin play an important role in emulsion stability by adsorbing onto the oil droplet surface.     

EFFECTS OF OIL DROPLETS ON PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF O/W EMULSION AGAR GEL

Effects of oil droplets in an agar gel matrix were investigated by mechanical analyses and sensory evaluation. The results for compressive and puncture properties were expressed in terms of relative values. All compressive properties; stress, strain and compressive energy of emulsion gels, as obtained by compression tests, decreased with both increases of oil droplet size and oil volume fraction. The stress, strain and energy of the emulsion gels obtained by puncture tests did not change with an increase in oil droplet size. Results of sensory evaluation showed that the sample containing small oil droplets was harder than that with large oil droplets. On the other hand, the large oil droplet sample was oilier than that with small oil droplets. The sensory evaluations for hardness and oiliness of emulsion gels did not exhibit significant relations to most of the properties of mechanical analyses.     

疏水改性藜麦淀粉的制备及其Pickering乳液乳化性研究

本文用碱提法从藜麦种子中提取藜麦淀粉,并用辛烯基琥珀酸酐(Octenyl Succnic Anhydride,OSA)对提取的藜麦淀粉进行疏水改性,得到了辛烯基琥珀酸淀粉酯(OSA淀粉)。通过傅里叶红外光谱、扫描电子显微镜对比原淀粉和OSA淀粉颗粒的结构和形态,发现OSA基团成功接到淀粉表面,在形态上表现为颗粒表面轻度破坏。通过测定乳液微观结构,乳滴粒径及乳化指数(EI),分析了OSA淀粉取代度、颗粒浓度和油相比例等因素对Pickering乳液乳化性的影响。结果表明,乳滴粒径随OSA淀粉取代度或淀粉颗粒浓度的增加而减小、EI值随OSA淀粉取代度或淀粉颗粒浓度的增加而提高,乳液乳化性增强。当油相比例的增加时,乳滴粒径增大,且在食品添加剂允许OSA添加量的范围内,取代度为1.43%的OSA淀粉颗粒的EI值达到最大值75.48%,乳化性最好。研究表明OSA改性藜麦淀粉作为Pickering乳液的稳定颗粒在食品领域有极大的应用潜力。     

Effect of monoglycerides and diglycerol-esters on viscoelasticity of heat-set whey protein emulsion gels

Summary Effects of small-molecule surfactants (emulsifiers) on the small-deformation viscoelastic properties of heat-set whey protein emulsion gels have been investigated using a controlled stress rheometer. The surfactants used in this investigation were the water-soluble diglycerol monolaurate (DGML) and diglycerol monooleate (DGMO), and the oil-soluble glycerol monooleate (GMO). The elastic modulus of the emulsion gel was found to decrease in the presence of a small amount of surfactant, but then to recover at higher surfactant concentrations. The initial reduction in modulus correlates with protein displacement from the oil droplet surface. The recovery of the storage and loss moduli at higher surfactant concentrations of DGML or DGMO may be due to the depletion flocculation of the emulsion prior to heat-treatment. However, for systems containing high content of GMO in the oil phase, the recovery of the moduli is probably owing mainly to the smaller average particle size. Effects of surface monolayer composition, droplet aggregation and average particle size were discussed. The behaviour obtained here was compared with results for previously investigated whey protein emulsion gel systems containing different emulsifiers.     

球磨-酯化复合改性槟榔芋淀粉对Pickering乳液形成的影响

为了提高淀粉颗粒的乳化能力,以球磨-酯化复合改性槟榔芋淀粉为颗粒乳化剂,大豆油为油相,制备水包油型Pickering乳液.采用激光粒度仪、研究级正置显微镜、流变仪等对Pickering乳液外观、液滴粒径、显微形态及动态流变特性进行表征,考察淀粉颗粒质量浓度(1、5、10、20、30 mg/mL)和油相体积分数(10％、20％、30％、40％、50％)对乳液稳定性和流变特性的影响.研究发现:增加颗粒质量浓度导致乳化相体积增加,液滴粒径减小;随着油相体积分数的增加,乳化相体积增加,液滴粒径增大.当颗粒质量浓度为20 mg/mL,油相体积分数为40％时,乳液的乳析现象明显改善.球磨-酯化复合改性槟榔芋淀粉颗粒吸附在油/水界面,有效抵抗了液滴聚结,使乳液在储存30 d后仍表现出良好的稳定性.流变特性表明:乳液内部存在弹性凝胶网络结构,随着颗粒质量浓度和油相体积分数的增加,液滴间堆积变得更紧密,从而增加了乳液黏度和凝胶强度,使其抵抗形变能力增强.球磨-酯化复合改性槟榔芋淀粉颗粒具有良好的作为Pickering乳液稳定剂的潜力.     

Droplet characterization and stability of soybean oil/palm kernel olein O/W emulsions with the presence of selected polysaccharides

Droplet characteristics, flow properties and stability of egg yolk-stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions as affected by the presence of xanthan gum (XG), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), guar gum (GG), locust bean gum (LBG) and gum Arabic (AG) were studied. The dispersed phase (40%) of the emulsions was based on soybean oil/palm kernel olein blend (70:30) that partially crystallized during extended storage at 5 °C. In freshly prepared emulsions, the presence of XG, CMC, GG and LBG had significantly decreased the droplet mean diameters. XG, LBG, GG and CMC emulsions exhibited a shear-thinning behavior but AG emulsion exhibited a Bingham plastic behavior and control (without gum) emulsion almost exhibited a Newtonian behavior. Both control and AG emulsions exhibited a severe phase separation after storage (30 days, 5 °C). The microstructure of stored XG emulsion showed the presence of partially coalesced droplets, explaining a large increase in its droplet mean diameters. Increases in droplet mean diameters and decreases in flow properties found for stored GG and LBG emulsions were attributed to droplet coalescence. Nevertheless, the occurrence of droplet coalescence in these emulsions was considered to be small as no free oil could be separated under centrifugation force. Increases in flow properties and excellent stability towards phase separation found for stored CMC emulsion suggested that CMC could retard partial coalescence. Thus, the results support the ability of CMC, GG and LBG in reducing partial coalescence either by providing a sufficiently thick continuous phase or by acting as a protective coating for oil droplets.