溶胶凝胶法制备SnO2:Sb膜的光学电学性能

以金属无机盐SnCl2 ·2H2 O和SbCl3 为原料 ,用溶胶凝胶浸渍法制备掺锑SnO2 透明导电薄膜 ,并对其电学参数(如方块电阻、霍尔迁移率、载流子浓度和类型 )和光学参数 (如透射反射率、光学能隙 )进行测试分析。XPS分析确定薄膜中掺杂锑离子主要以Sb5+ 形式存在。薄膜的方块电阻最低可达 85Ω/□ ,霍尔迁移率在 2 .5～ 3.6cm2 V-1s-1,膜厚约1μm时可见光透射率约为 85 % ,反射率低于 15 %。     

透明SnO2薄膜的制备及结构、性质研究

采用超声喷雾热解成膜技术制备透明SnO2薄膜，用XRD、UV／Vis、SEM、电导温度曲线等系统研究了衬底温度、反应液中双氧水浓度与SnO2薄膜的结构、形貌和光学、电学性质的关系。结果表明，衬底温度与薄膜的微结构和电阻率有密切的关系；加入适量双氧水能使制备的薄膜晶粒均匀，表面形貌有所改善并得到透明高阻SnO2薄膜。     

一种喷涂SnO_2减反射薄膜的新工艺及材料研究

采用超声雾化喷涂法沉积得到 Sn O2 薄膜和掺氟离子 Sn O2 薄膜。通过改变掺杂量和选择合适的工艺条件可控制掺氟 Sn O2 薄膜的方块电阻 ,其最小方块电阻值达 10 Ω/□。用 5 5 0 nm单色光测得其透过率为 85 %— 90 %。用 X射线衍射仪及扫描电子显微镜分析 Sn O2 薄膜的微结构和成份 ,薄膜为择优取向晶化。薄膜具有很好的抗腐蚀性能。在已完成 pn结及电极制作工序的单晶硅太阳电池上沉积一层厚 70 nm的未掺杂 Sn O2 薄膜 ,构成光学减反射层 ,其电池的短路电流 Isc提高约 5 %— 10 %。     

衬底温度对AZO/Cu/AZO多层薄膜结构及光电特性的影响

采用射频磁控溅射和离子束溅射联合设备在玻璃衬底上制备出了具有良好附着性、低电阻率和高透过率的AZO/Cu/AZO多层薄膜.研究了衬底温度对薄膜的结构和光电特性影响.X射线衍射谱表明AZO/Cu/AZO多层薄膜是多晶膜,AZO层具有六角纤锌矿结构,最佳取向为(002)方向,Cu层具有立方结构.当三层薄膜制备过程中,衬底始终加热,衬底温度为100%℃时,制备的薄膜具有最高的品质因子2.26×10-2Ω-1,其方块电阻为11Ω·□-1,在波长500-800nm范围内平均透过率达到了87%.当制备靠近衬底的AZO层,衬底才加热时,发现衬底温度为250℃时,制备的多层薄膜光电特性最优,其方块电阻为8Ω·□-1,平均透过率为86%.     

非晶硅太阳能电池生产中沉积SnO2膜的均匀性

介绍了用化学气相法沉积大面积SnO2透明电膜的原理和方法。通过沉积器具有工艺的改进,提高了大面积SnO2膜方块电阻和光透过率的均匀性。讨论了SnO2膜均匀性对非晶硅太阳电池的影响。     

晶体硅太阳电池扩散工艺研究

作为晶体硅太阳电池制作的心脏环节,扩散的效果也就是扩散后方块电阻的均匀性显得尤为重要。影响方块电阻均匀性的主要因素有:大小氮的流量、O2的流量、通源时间、再分布时间和中心温度。通过逐一改变这些因素,分析所得数据,得到一个能有效控制方块电阻大小、使方块电阻均匀性达到最佳的规律:大小氮流量的变化共同影响方块电阻均匀性;方块电阻大小的改变主要靠温度、时间、小氮的流量的改变来调节。通过以上实验规律的研究,便于常规工艺的调试和高方块电阻工艺中高方块电阻的制备和极差的优化。     

红外灯辅助喷雾热解法制备可控锑掺杂氧化锡透明热反射薄膜

本文以乙二醇为溶剂及配位剂,以冰乙酸为酸性催化剂,采用溶胶−凝胶法制备均一稳定的具有不同锑掺杂浓度的二氧化锡（SnO2）溶胶,再通过红外灯辅助喷雾热解法制备性能优异的可控锑掺杂SnO2薄膜,并对薄膜微结构、光电性能进行表征。结果表明：薄膜以四方金红石结构存在,结晶完全;方阻值随锑掺杂浓度和成膜厚度的增加而降低;薄膜在可见光区的平均透过率可达79%左右,且在中远红外光区的平均反射率可达80%左右。此外,通过改变锑掺杂浓度和成膜厚度,能够有效地调节薄膜的红外反射率与反射起点波长,从而满足不同气候条件对热反射和热发射的不同要求。     

应用于太阳电池的单晶硅上化学镀镍工艺

研究了在P型单晶硅上扩散的N区发射极上选择性化学镀镍工艺,获得了较为优化的化学镀工艺过程,得到了均匀致密的镀层。其中针对单晶硅表面的特点,采取了浓酸浸泡和HF处理以及氯化钯的活化方法,使得镀层质量得以提高。进行了合金化处理温度对合金层的电阻率影响的研究,结果发现在N_2气氛下330℃的热处理将会促进具有最低方块电阻的Ni-Si合金的形成。在方块电阻为45Ω/□的发射极上,化学镀后得到了方块电阻为2Ω/□的Ni-Si合金层。     

衬底温度对太阳电池铝背反射电极性能的影响

采用中频脉冲磁控溅射在不同衬底温度下制备了太阳电池铝背反射电极,利用X射线衍射仪(XRD)研究了薄膜晶体结构,用X射线光电子谱仪(XPS)分析薄膜的成分,用原子力显微镜(AFM)观察薄膜表面形貌和粗糙度,用分光光度计研究薄膜的反射率。研究发现随衬底温度升高,薄膜中氧含量增加,晶体结构变为混合晶面取向,晶化率降低,表面粗糙度增大,反射率下降。将其应用到NIP非晶硅薄膜太阳电池中,在衬底温度为300℃时,得到了5.6%的电池转换效率。     

绒面ZnO:Al(ZAO)透明导电薄膜的制备

利用中频交流磁控溅射方法，采用氧化锌铝(98wt％ZnO 2wt％A12O3)陶瓷靶材制备了绒面ZAO(ZnO：Al)薄膜，考察了所制备的绒面ZAO薄膜与绒面SnO2：F薄膜在绒度、粗糙度、表面形貌以及电学性质的差异，利用原子力显徽镜对薄膜表面形貌进行了分析并计算出薄膜表面粗糙度，利用紫外可见分光光度计和电阻测试仪测量了薄膜的光学、电学特性。结果表明：所制备的绒面ZAO薄膜具有与绒面SnO2：F薄膜相比拟的各种性能，在非晶硅太阳电池中具有潜在的应用前景。     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

Contents in Volume 23,2014

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NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Controls on the Karaha–Telaga Bodas geothermal reservoir,Indonesia

Karaha–Telaga Bodas is a partially vapor-dominated, fracture-controlled geothermal system located adjacent to Galunggung Volcano in western Java, Indonesia. The geothermal system consists of: (1) a caprock, ranging from several hundred to 1600 m in thickness, and characterized by a steep, conductive temperature gradient and low permeability; (2) an underlying vapor-dominated zone that extends below sea level; and (3) a deep liquid-dominated zone with measured temperatures up to 353 °C. Heat is provided by a tabular granodiorite stock encountered at about 3 km depth. A structural analysis of the geothermal system shows that the effective base of the reservoir is controlled either by the boundary between brittle and ductile deformational regimes or by the closure and collapse of fractures within volcanic rocks located above the brittle/ductile transition. The base of the caprock is determined by the distribution of initially low-permeability lithologies above the reservoir; the extent of pervasive clay alteration that has significantly reduced primary rock permeabilities; the distribution of secondary minerals deposited by descending waters; and, locally, by a downward change from a strike-slip to an extensional stress regime. Fluid-producing zones are controlled by both matrix and fracture permeabilities. High matrix permeabilities are associated with lacustrine, pyroclastic, and epiclastic deposits. Productive fractures are those showing the greatest tendency to slip and dilate under the present-day stress conditions. Although the reservoir appears to be in pressure communication across its length, fluid, and gas chemistries vary laterally, suggesting the presence of isolated convection cells.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.     

Assessment methods of material ageing using Sdobyrev''s creep rupture model

The physical aspects of the activation energy, in higher and high temperatures, of the metal creep process were examined. The research results of creep-rupture in a uniaxial stress state and the criterion of creep-rupture in biaxial stress states, at two temperatures, are then presented. For these studies creep-rupture, taking case iron as an example the energy and pseudoenergy activation was determined. For complex stress states the criterion of creep-rupture was taken to be Sdobyrev's, i.e. σ_red = σ₁ β + (1 − β)σ_i, where: σ₁-maximal principal stress, σ_i-stress intensity, β-material constant (at variable temperature β = β(T)). The methods of assessment of the material ageing grade are given in percentages of ageing of new material in the following mechanical properties: 1) creep strength in uniaxial stress state, 2) activation energy in uniaxial stress state, 3) criterion creep strength in complex stress states, 4) activation pseudoenergy in complex stress states. The methods 1) and 3) are the relatively simplest because they result from experimental investigations only at nominal temperature of the structure work, however, for methods 2) and 4) it is necessary to perform the experimental investigations at least at two temperatures.