Dependency of Deformation Behavior of Retained Austenite in TRIP Steels on Microstructural and Chemical Homogeneity

The room-temperature stability of the retained austenite against strain-induced martensitic transformation, its deformation behavior, the response to the bainitic isothermal treatment, the appearance of yield point elongation and other peculiarities of plastic flow, and the mechanical properties of transformation-induced plasticity(TRIP) steel were tailored based on the chemical homogeneity and the relative distribution of the retained austenite, bainite, and ferrite in the microstructure. The presence of ferritic-pearlitic banded structure in the initial microstructure resulted in an inhomogeneous TRIP microstructure, in which the retained austenite and bainite were confined to some bands and it was found to be responsible for the resultant inferior mechanical properties. The appearance of discontinuous yielding for the chemically inhomogeneous material was related to the martensitic transformation of unstable retained austenite at the initial stage of tensile deformation. These results are essential for better understanding of the behavior of advanced high-strength steels and their applications.     

低碳-硅-锰系TRIP钢的组织演变规律研究

采用彩色金相、SEM、TEM和X射线衍射技术研究了低碳-硅-锰TRJP钢在单向拉伸状态下的组织演变规律.结果表明,TRIP钢变形前的组织为F、B和残余奥氏体,经拉伸变形后部分残余奥氏体在应变作用下转变为孪晶结构的马氏体,提高了钢的强度;TRIP钢的断裂为韧性断裂,位于F晶界处的残余奥氏体发生相变从而松弛了应力,延缓了断裂的产生,使TRIP钢板获得高塑性.     

逆转变奥氏体对中Mn钢低温冲击断裂过程的影响

对超低碳7%Mn钢进行了不同温度的回火处理,测定了组织中的逆转变奥氏体含量及其在-60、-100 ℃下的冲击吸收能量,并观察了冲击断口附近的显微组织,进而讨论了逆转变奥氏体含量及稳定性对试验钢低温冲击断裂过程的影响。结果表明:逆转变奥氏体对试验钢低温韧性的影响具有两面性,一方面能够通过相变缓解裂纹尖端的应力集中,改善钢的低温韧性,另一方面,当其稳定性较低时易于在应力作用下大量发生马氏体相变,导致钢低温韧性降低。冲击断口附近产生明显塑性变形的区域都较小,表明在冲击断裂过程中难以通过大范围的TRIP效应实现韧化。     

基于动态相变热轧TRIP钢塑性断裂的实验研究

通过热模拟压缩实验,研究了基于动态相变热轧C-Mn-Al-Si系TRIP钢塑性断裂后不同部位的组织。结果表明,实验钢组织中尺寸较大的残留奥氏体,在塑性过程中很快就会发生马氏体相变,从而导致孔洞或裂纹的起源或萌生;而且,裂纹的起源和扩展与组织的铁素体/残留奥氏体（马氏体）密切相关。减小残留奥氏体的晶粒尺寸,提高残留奥氏体的稳定性,不让其在形变初期快速转变为马氏体,有利于TRIP钢强度及塑性的提高。     

Effect of Retained Austenite on Properties of Austempered Ductile Iron

Austempered ductile iron (ADI) exhibits a favourable combination of strength and toughness, and has been used as a substitute for quench-tempered or carburise-quenched steel. A characteristic feature of bainite transformation of cast iron, as opposed to carbon steel, is that precipitation of carbide is suppressed by the high concentration of silicon. Thus, a favourable structure, consisting of bainitic ferrite and retained austenite without carbide, can be provided by the optimum austempering treatment. Such microstructure and the mechanical properties of the iron are significantly affected by the conditions of the austempering treatment and the chemical composition. In this study, several grades of ductile iron were austempered under various conditions. The relationship between the impact strength, the quantity of retained austenite and the isothermal transformation curve was investigated. The stability of the retained austenite is considered important, because ADI contains a large amount of retained austenite which contributes to the improvement of ductility and toughness and which may transform to martensite when held at low temperature or subjected to stress. In this study, the stability of the retained austenite at low temperatures was examined by holding or stressing to establish the relations between transformation and temperature, stress and strain.

When the austempering time is short, the untransformed austenite partially transforms to martensite during air cooling, due to the lower carbon content, resulting in lower impact strength. As the austempering time increases, the untransformed austenite is stabilised by carbon-enrichment and there is little transformation to martensite, resulting in a large amount of retained austenite and higher impact strength. When the austempering time becomes much longer, the carbon-enriched austenite decomposes, presumably to bainitic ferrite and carbide, decreasing impact strength. In increasing the silicon content, precipitation of carbide in bainite is suppressed and both the maximum impact value and the content of retained austenite increase. The decreasing rates after the maxima through an additional isothermal holding becomes smaller.

By holding at temperatures down to –40°C, the decrease in retained austenite and the increase in hardness are both small. The retained austenite is stable under stress lower than that required to cause plastic deformation. Compressive stress hinders the martensitic transformation, because the transformation is accompanied by volume expansion.     

Toughness and microstructure of 13Cr4NiMo high-strength steel welds

The microstructures and tensile, Charpy, and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) properties of 13Cr4NiMo soft martensitic stainless steel flux cored are welding process (FCAW) weld metals have been studied through different applied postweld heat treatments (PWHT). Phases and microstructural characteristics have been analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and x-ray diffraction. The effect of the tempering and double tempering, with and without previous solution annealing, on the impact and fracture toughness has been studied. The role of the retained austenite resulting from tempering has been recognized, and it is suggested that the austenite particles improve the toughness of the welds through their transformation by the transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) mechanism.     

In situ neutron diffraction investigation of the collaborative deformation–transformation mechanism in TRIP-assisted steels at room and elevated temperatures

The deformation behaviour of two transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-assisted steels with slightly different microstructures due to different thermo-mechanically controlled processing (TMCP) was investigated by the in situ neutron diffraction technique during tensile straining at room temperature and two elevated (50 and 100 °C) temperatures. The essential feature of the TRIP deformation mechanism was found to be significant stress redistribution at the yield point. The applied tensile load is redistributed within the complex TRIP-steel microstructure in such a way that the retained austenite bears a significantly larger load than the ferrite–bainite α-matrix. The macroscopic yielding of the steel then takes place through the simultaneous cooperative activity of the austenite-to-martensite transformation in the austenite phase and plastic deformation in the α-matrix. It is concluded that, although its volume fraction is small, the martensitically transforming retained austenite phase dispersed within the α-matrix governs the plastic deformation of TRIP-assisted steels.     

离子研磨对TRIP780钢中残留奥氏体含量和稳定性的影响

研究了经离子研磨对TRIP780钢中残留奥氏体含量与稳定性的影响。首先利用电解抛光技术对TRIP780钢进行样品制备以去除样品表面的应力层,然后利用离子研磨仪对所得样品进行离子研磨,再借助场发射扫描电镜对TRIP780钢中的残留奥氏体进行形貌观察与分析,利用电子背散射衍射技术(EBSD)对离子研磨前后的TRIP钢中残留奥氏体含量进行定性和定量分析。结果表明,与电解抛光相比,离子研磨技术同样可以很好的去除样品表面应力层,但是对于TRIP780钢,经过离子研磨后样品中残留奥氏体的含量大幅度减少,从原来的10.1%骤降至0.02%。从残留奥氏体的菊池花样可以看出,经离子研磨后的残留奥氏体菊池花样明显变差,甚至模糊不清。经离子研磨后的TRIP780钢中残留奥氏体含量明显下降,同时其相结构确实发生了转变,由原来的面心立方结构转变为体心立方结构(即fcc→bcc),由此表明残留奥氏体在受到离子轰击后极其不稳定,易发生相变,这一点在残留奥氏体的准原位试验中得到了进一步的验证。同时离子研磨诱发了晶格的畸变,导致菊池花样清晰度明显下降,花样分辨率降低。     

TRIP钢中残余奥氏体相变与断裂机制研究

文章以CR600TRIP工业成品钢为研究对象,利用彩色金相和EBSD等技术手段,在详细考察TRIP钢的微观组织,特别是残余奥氏体分布规律的基础上,进一步利用定量变形和SEM原位拉伸试验,对钢中残余奥氏体的相变行为和钢的断裂机制进行了考察分析。研究发现,钢中残余奥氏体的相变顺序表现出显著的选择性,而其断裂机制主要为微孔聚集型断裂。     

Multiscale mechanics of TRIP-assisted multiphase steels: I. Characterization and mechanical testing

The mechanical behaviour of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP)-assisted multiphase steels is addressed based on three different microstructures generated from the same steel grade. The mechanisms responsible for the work-hardening capacity and the resulting balance between strength and resistance to plastic localization are investigated at different length scales. The macroscopic mechanical response is determined by simple shear, uniaxial tension, Marciniak and equibiaxial tension supplemented by earlier tensile tests on notched and cracked specimens. It is shown that the transformation rate reaches a maximum for stress states intermediate between uniaxial tension and equibiaxial tension. At an intermediate length scale, the true in situ flow properties of the individual ferrite–bainite and retained austenite phases are determined by combining neutron diffraction and digital image correlation. This combined analysis elucidates the partitioning of stress and strain between the different constitutive phases. Based on these results, supplemented by transmission electron microscopy and electron backscattered diffraction observations, a general overview of the hardening behaviour of TRIP-assisted multiphase steels is depicted.     

Tensile behavior of TRIP-aided multi-phase steels studied by in situ neutron diffraction

TRIP-aided multi-phase steels were made by thermo-mechanically controlled process, where the ferrite grain size and the amount of the retained austenite were changed by controlling process conditions. The tensile behavior of four steels was studied by in situ neutron diffraction. It is found that the retained austenite bearing about 1.0 wt% C is plastically harder than the ferrite matrix. The steel with a ferrite grain size of ≈2.0 μm showed tensile strength of 1.1 GPa and a uniform elongation of 18.4%, in which stress-induced martensitic transformation occurs during plastic deformation but a considerable amount of austenite remains even after the onset of necking. It is concluded that the enhancement of uniform elongation is caused mainly by the work-hardening due to the hard austenite and martensite, where the contribution of the transformation strain is negligible.     

High-energy X-ray diffraction study on the temperature-dependent mechanical stability of retained austenite in low-alloyed TRIP steels

The stability of the retained austenite has been studied in situ in low-alloyed transformation-induced-plasticity (TRIP) steels using high-energy X-ray diffraction during tensile tests at variable temperatures down to 153 K. A detailed powder diffraction analysis has been performed to probe the austenite-to-martensite transformation by characterizing the evolution of the phase fraction, load partitioning and texture of the constituent phases simultaneously. Our results show that at lower temperatures the mechanically induced austenite transformation is significantly enhanced and extends over a wider deformation range, resulting in a higher elongation at fracture. Low carbon content grains transform first, leading to an initial increase in average carbon concentration of the remaining austenite. Later the carbon content saturates while the austenite still continues to transform. In the elastic regime the probed {h k l} planes develop different strains reflecting the elastic anisotropy of the constituent phases. The observed texture evolution indicates that the austenite grains oriented with the {2 0 0} plane along the loading direction are transformed preferentially as they show the highest resolved shear stress. For increasing degrees of plastic deformation the combined preferential transformation and grain rotation results in the standard deformation texture for austenite with the {1 1 1} component along the loading direction. The mechanical stability of retained austenite in TRIP steel is found to be a complex interplay between carbon concentration in the austenite, grain orientation, load partitioning and temperature.     

Effect of strain rate on deformation behavior of TRIP steels

Tensile deformation behavior of Si–Mn TRIP (TRansformation Induced Plasticity) steel with vanadium and without vanadium and the DP (Dual Phase) steel of the same composition were studied in a large range of strain rate (0.001–2000 s^?1) by routine material testing machine, rotation disk bar–bar tensile impact apparatus and high-speed material testing machine of servo-hydraulic type. In situ measurement of the transformation of retained austenite was performed by means of X-ray stress apparatus in order to have detailed knowledge about the transformation of retained austenite at quasi-static tensile. Microstructure of steels before and after tensile were observed by means of optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). It is shown that there is no yield plateau observed on the stress–strain curve at quasi-static condition for TRIP steel containing vanadium because the vanadium carbide suppress the formation of Cottrell atmosphere in matrix. Retained austenite of Si–Mn TRIP steel containing vanadium transforms to martensite at loading stress of 502 MPa (its yielding strength is 486 MPa), while the transformation of retained austenite in matrix of Si–Mn TRIP steel without vanadium happens when its yielding process is finished at quasi-static tensile. It is confirmed that phase transformation of retained austenite in TRIP steel is strain induced phase transformation. It is noted that tensile elongation of TRIP steel at dynamic tensile is always lower than that at quasi-static tensile. That is because gradually strain induced phase transformation of retained austenite in TRIP steel is suppressed by deformation localization at dynamic tensile.     

EFFECT OF AUSTEMPERING ON TRANSFORMATION INDUCED PLASTICITY OF HOT ROLLED MULTIPHASE STEELS

Effect of austempering on the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) of hot rolled multiphase steel was investigated. Polygonal ferrite, granular bainite, and a large amount of stabilized retained austenite could be obtained in the hot rolled multiphase steel. Strain induced martensite transformation (SIMT) of retained austenite and TRIP effectively occur under straining owing to austempering after hot rolling, and mechanical properties of the present steel remain at a relatively high constant value for austempering at 400℃. The mechanical properties of the steel exhibited a good combination of tensile strength (791MPa) and total elongation (36%) because the stability of retained austenite is optimal when the steel is held for 20min.     

Effect of deformation on hydrogen trapping and effusion in TRIP-assisted steel

The trapping of hydrogen at a variety of sites in multiphase transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels has been characterized using thermal desorption spectroscopy and the results have been modelled using diffusion theory. It is discovered that austenite serves as a reversible trapping site which is more potent than grain boundaries or dislocations in ferrite. Plastic deformation which leads to the partial martensitic transformation of the austenite results in an alteration in the trapping condition of the inherited hydrogen. It is demonstrated that these phenomena can be incorporated into a mathematical model which permits the desorption of hydrogen to be predicted quantitatively as a function of, for example, the heating rate, phase fractions and phase transformation. An interesting outcome is that the mechanical degradation of the steel by hydrogen is more pronounced in TRIP steel containing austenite which is relatively less stable to martensitic transformation during deformation. This is because the phase transformation causes a reduction in the trap binding energy, thus enhancing the apparent mobility of the hydrogen.     

Effect of Partial Replacement of Si with Al on the Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of 1000 MPa TRIP Steels

Two newly synthesized C-Mn-Si-Mo-Nb transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels with and without Al addition were designed in order to achieve significant improvements in the mechanical properties. The effect of substitution of Si by Al on tensile properties and the microstructure of cold-rolled C-Mn-Si TRIP steel was investigated under different heat treatments. It was shown that a complex ultrafine microstructure composed of different phases was formed and two types of morphology for ferrite were detected (equiaxial and polygonal). The distribution of alloying elements was observed by using electron probe microanalysis. It was clear that C was concentrated in the retained austenite (RA) and small M/A (austenite/martensite) islands. The Al addition facilitated the formation of polygonal ferrite and increased the stability of the RA. The strain-hardening behavior was studied in detail. All the investigated specimens showed a very high strain-hardening exponent (instantaneous n) but their strain dependence was different. For the C-Mn-Si-Mo-Nb TRIP steel, the maximum n value was achieved when the strain was only about 0.04, while the n value of the Al substituted TRIP steel increased gradually until strains in the range of 0.07-0.10 were reached and the maximum value was achieved. As a result, the elongations of the steel with Al addition increased considerably without obvious deterioration of strength. It was the first time to find microtwinned martensite located between ferrite and bainitic ferrite after tensile deformation in the low alloy TRIP steel with Al.     

Deformation-induced austenite grain rotation and transformation in TRIP-assisted steel

Uniaxial straining experiments were performed on a rolled and annealed Si-alloyed TRIP (transformation-induced plasticity) steel sheet in order to assess the role of its microstructure on the mechanical stability of austenite grains with respect to martensitic transformation. The transformation behavior of individual metastable austenite grains was studied both at the surface and inside the bulk of the material using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) by deforming the samples to different strain levels up to about 20%. A comparison of the XRD and EBSD results revealed that the retained austenite grains at the surface have a stronger tendency to transform than the austenite grains in the bulk of the material. The deformation-induced changes of individual austenite grains before and after straining were monitored with EBSD. Three different types of austenite grains can be distinguished that have different transformation behaviors: austenite grains at the grain boundaries between ferrite grains, twinned austenite grains, and embedded austenite grains that are completely surrounded by a single ferrite grain. It was found that twinned austenite grains and the austenite grains present at the grain boundaries between larger ferrite grains typically transform first, i.e. are less stable, in contrast to austenite grains that are completely embedded in a larger ferrite grain. In the latter case, straining leads to rotations of the harder austenite grain within the softer ferrite matrix before the austenite transforms into martensite. The analysis suggests that austenite grain rotation behavior is also a significant factor contributing to enhancement of the ductility.     

含铌TRIP钢的显微组织和残留奥氏体稳定性分析

研究了含Nb与不含Nb两种冷轧TRIP钢热处理后的显微组织和力学性能,并用X射线衍射法计算了TRIP钢中残留奥氏体含量及残留奥氏体中的碳含量.试验结果表明,TRIP钢中铁素体体积分数随退火温度的升高逐渐减少,在相同热处理工艺下,与不含Nb试样比较,含Nb试样的残留奥氏体中碳含量较高,强塑积较大.残留奥氏体量大约相同时,含Nb试样残留奥氏体更为稳定,综合力学性能也更好.     

铆螺钢不变形和变形条件下连续冷却的相变行为

在Gleeble-1500热模拟试验机上进行铆螺钢的热模拟实验,通过研究其不变形条件下和与实验室轧机轧制变形量相一致的变形条件下的连续冷却相变行为,建立了相应的静态和动态CCT图,通过扫描电镜(SEM)对其组织进行观测。结果表明,由于形变增加了形核位置和能量,加速了相变,在热变形的CCT图中,变形使铁素体、珠光体和贝氏体转变线向高温区的左移。最快的冷却速度获得了全部的马氏体组织;随冷却速度降低,粒状贝氏体、多边形铁素体和珠光体组织形成;快冷抑制了铁素体和珠光体形成,使硬度增高;硅、锰和铬合金元素使CCT图中的珠光体和贝氏体转变线右移;在变形条件下以3.3℃/s~16.7℃/s的冷速冷却时,能够得到多边形铁素体、粒状贝氏体和残余奥氏体组织。由于组织中残余奥氏体的存在,有助于产生相变诱发塑性(TRIP)效应,铆螺钢实际轧制时可能能够获得满意的冷镦性能。     

TRIP钢冲压成形过程中马氏体相变特性研究及其仿真

结合材料四相特性及板料的各向异性,构建TRIP钢应力应变关系及屈服准则,基于Tomita and Iwanmoto（TI）理论模型,建立TRIP钢本构关系,实现其冲压成形过程仿真。实验结果表明四相硬化混合准则可以准确描述含有TRIP钢硬化特性。单向拉伸实验、平面拉伸实验结果同计算结果比较说明相变模型可以定量预测变形过程中的马氏体转变。圆筒件冲压成形结果同实验结果表明,理论模型同样可以合理描述冲压成形过程中马氏体的变化规律。