Flume simulations of salmon bioturbation effects on critical shear stress and bedload transport in rivers

Nest (redd) construction by female salmonids involves sequences of pit excavation and filling that winnow fines, loosen grains, and moves sediment downstream into a tailspill mound shaped like a dune. Prior research suggests that such bioturbation may destabilize streambeds by reducing friction between grains and converging flow that elevates shear stress on tailspills. Bed stability may alternatively be enhanced by form drag from redds that lowers basal shear stress, an effect that varies with the proportion of the bed that is occupied by redds (P). I used simulated redds and water‐worked (“unspawned”) beds in a laboratory flume to evaluate these competing influences on critical conditions and bedload transport in experiments with P = 0.11 (1 redd), 0.29 (2 redds), and 0.38 (3 redds). Results from competence (largest grain) and reference transport rate estimates of Shields stress indicate that particle entrainment inversely related to P. Bedload transport rates also increased as exponential functions of P and the boundary shear stress that exceeded critical conditions. Therefore, redd form drag did not overcome the destabilizing effects of redd construction. Instead, grain mobility and bedload transport increased with P because larger bed areas were composed of relatively loose grains and redd topography that experiences elevated shear stresses, as suggested in prior research. By winnowing fines and increasing bed surface mobility that exposes small particles in subsurface areas to flow, bioturbation by salmon can mitigate fine sedimentation of streambeds, which suggests an active role for salmon in restoring fish habitat in streams.     

INITIAL MOTION AND BEDLOAD TRANSPORT DISTANCE DETERMINED BY PARTICLE TRACKING IN A LARGE REGULATED RIVER

Reservoir releases on large regulated rivers are increasingly being used to rejuvenate riverine habitat downstream of dams. Determining the effective flow level is complicated by the trade‐off between mobilizing bed particles and retaining coarse sediment in rivers with low sediment supply. This study determined mobilization and transport distance of bed particles using motion‐sensing radio transmitting particles that approximated the reach‐average D₈₄ grain size. The distribution of shear stress at initial motion varied substantially between flood events, and suggests that the sequence of flood events and the history of under‐threshold flows may be an important determinant of bed strength and thus particle mobility. In addition, particle activity was greatest on the rising limb of each flood and was maximized at near bankfull flow. Travel distances did not vary between floods when scaled by transport event duration, and a negative exponential distribution was a good fit to the data. Results of this study provide important insight into individual particle movement, which can be used to inform flow releases and understand the effects of flood magnitude on particle mobility and transport. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A hydrogeomorphic dynamics approach to assess in‐stream ecological functionality using the functional flows model,part 1—model characteristics

The functional flows model integrates hydrogeomorphic processes and ecological functions for stream physical habitat evaluations. Functional flows are discharge values that serve ecological uses. Assessments of functional flows are based on evaluation of shear stress dynamics. The analysis is based on the occurrence of sediment transport regimes defined by threshold values of Shields stress estimated from discharge (Q), a parameter (f) governing depth response to incremental discharge changes, water surface slope (S) and media grain size (D₅₀). As an example, the model was tuned for fall‐run Chinook salmon spawning. Ecological functions studied were bed occupation (spawning, incubation and emergence) and bed preparation (river bed reworking periods)—both reliant on shear stress dynamics. A numerical experiment and sensitivity analysis using a wide range of realistic values of input variables indicated the effect of each variable on flow functionality. Combinations of S = 0.001, 0.005 and 0.01, D₅₀ = 0.02, 0.05, 0.1 m, f = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and four sediment transport stages produced 144 scenarios. Ranges of functional flows were greater for scenarios for low f (0.2) with low slope (0.001,0.05), for high f (0.5) with small grain size (0.02 m) and for intermediate low f (0.3) with coarse grain size (0.1 m). The functional flows model incorporates in‐stream habitat processes by including metrics of hydrologic, hydraulic, geomorphic and ecologic dynamics. Model uncertainties related to input data, calculation algorithms, and model structure are analysed. Functional flows analysis can be useful in studying water management alternatives to improve habitat conditions for target species and lifestages. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A high‐resolution hydrodynamic investigation of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) redds

High‐resolution velocity measurements were taken over a series of redds on a gravel‐bed stream using a Pulse Coherent Acoustic Doppler Profiler (PCADP) to quantify the hydrodynamics of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) redds. On redds studied, over 4500 velocity measurements per redd were acquired per day to quantify the flow velocity, flow depth and related fluid mechanics metrics of Reynolds numbers, Froude numbers and turbulent kinetic energy per unit area. Results showed that velocity and Froude numbers varied widely at the redd scale, but consistently showed higher velocities and Froude numbers over the tailspill regions relative to the surrounding study limits. Results of Reynolds numbers calculations showed no apparent correlations to spawning location preference and redd structure. Turbulent kinetic energy per unit area consistently demonstrated a strong correlation with redd locations. The metric maintained low values (i.e. unidirectional flow with little turbulence) where all redds and attempted redds were observed. The study also demonstrates that a number of hydraulic metrics and several spatial scales will likely be necessary to understand any inherent relationship between river hydraulics and redd placement. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of ice cover on local scour around semi-circular bridge abutment简

The presence of ice cover in winter can significantly change the flow field around bridge abutments, which can also cause a different local scour pattern. To investigate the impacts of ice cover, results from a recent flume experiments were presented. Smooth and rough ice covers were created to investigate the impacts of ice cover roughness on the scour geometry around the semi-circular abutment. Three bed materials were used, with 50D s of 0.58 mm, 0.50 mm, 0.47 mm respectively. Scour volume and scour area were calculated. It was found that the maximum scour depth was located 75o inclined to the flume wall. Under rough ice cover, the scour area and scour depth were the largest. An empirical equation on the maximum scour depth was also developed.     

Annual redd counts across two decades are indicators of changing migratory bull trout population sizes in two proximate Montana creeks

Redd counts are the most widely used method for bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus Suckley) population monitoring. Redd counts are an assumed indicator of population size (N), particularly for female spawners, but previous studies rarely considered the measurement uncertainty of N. The present study of two proximate, migratory bull trout populations across two decades examined statistical correlations between annual redd counts and concurrent N (predominantly fish ages 3–7) that included measurement uncertainty. Results showed that redd counts explained about one-third of the concurrent N variation and, in one case, portended N 7 years later. But changing spawning distributions across years, as likewise shown here and as a probable effect of ongoing climate change, can confound the use of fixed index reaches for redd counts. Instead, abundance monitoring based on redd counts should be over a bull trout population's or metapopulation's entire spatial extent and have counts in all potential spawning areas. Such total-annual redd counts may be the most cost-effective and precise means of bull trout population monitoring.     

Specification of Flows for Flushing Surficial Sand from Cobble Riffles

Maintenance of habitat for benthic organisms and fish spawning may require flushing of sand from gravel or cobble river beds. An approach is proposed for specifying both the magnitude and duration of flow necessary to scour sand to a desired depth over a specified length of riffle bed. Scour is assumed to begin at the upstream end of the reach to be flushed and to progress downstream. The flow magnitude necessary for scour to an equilibrium depth was found from previously published laboratory data to be related to the median sand grain size and its movability number (the ratio of shear velocity to settling velocity). The required flow duration is determined by the time for scour to progress over the specified distance. The progression rate was determined through new laboratory experiments to be related to the flow velocity and depth, the distance advanced, the sand movability number and the channel slope. Application of the approach is illustrated by example. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantifying the habitat and zoogeomorphic capabilities of spawning European barbel Barbus barbus,a lithophilous cyprinid

Suitable gravel availability is critical for the spawning success of lithophilous fishes, including redd builders. Redd construction during spawning can alter substrate characteristics, thereby influencing hydraulic conditions and sediment transport, highlighting the importance of spawning as a zoogeomorphic activity. Here, interactions between redd‐building fish and their spawning environment were investigated for European barbel Barbus barbus with a comparative approach across three English rivers: Teme (western), Great Ouse (eastern) and Idle (central). Sediment characteristics of spawning habitats were similar across the rivers, including subsurface fine sediment (<2 mm) content (≈20% dry weight), but elevated subsurface silt content and coarser surface sediments were found in the river Teme. Water velocities were similar at spawning sites despite differences in channel width and depth. Redds were characterized by a pit and tailspill, with no differences in surface grain‐size characteristics between these and the surrounding riverbed, but with topographic alteration (dimensions and tailspill amplitude) in line with those of salmonids. Estimates of the fraction of the bed that spawning barbel were capable of moving exceeded 97% in all rivers. Estimated reproductive potential varied significantly between the rivers Idle and Teme (3,098 to 9,715 eggs/m²), which was largely due to differences in barbel lengths affecting fecundity. Larger barbel, capable of producing and depositing more eggs, but in more spatially extensive redds, meaning fewer redds per given surface area of riverbed. Predictions of barbel egg mortality based on sand content were low across both rivers. The effects of silt on barbel egg and larvae development are unknown, but the levels detected here would significantly impact salmon egg mortality. Similarities in fish length to redd area and the size of moveable grains by spawning barbel and salmon suggest they have similar geomorphic effects on sediments, although fine sediment tolerance is highly divergent.     

桥墩基础施工河床局部冲刷研究

天然河流中水流受到建筑物的阻碍时，产生紊动涡旋，局部河床泥沙在水流紊动剪应力作用下起动，并被涡旋流带向下游，建筑物局部河床因此受到侵蚀而下降，形成局部冲刷坑。跨河大桥桥墩的局部冲刷就是如此。桥墩及其基础与水深或河床的相对位置影响着局部冲刷深度的发展。本文通过室内试验研究了桥墩下部钢围堰基础施工的相对高程对河床局部冲刷最大深度的影响，探讨了工后钢围堰顶部处于相对水深的不同高度时局部冲刷发展的规律，并将这些影响因素用墩形系数法计入局部冲刷深度计算中，给出了计算公式。本文的研究对目前跨江及跨海大尺度桥墩基础工程施工具有指导意义。     

Scour depths at sites selected for spawning by brown trout (Salmo trutta) along a longitudinal gradient of a North American mountain river

In the Intermountain West, USA, fry of fall‐spawning brown trout (Salmo trutta) are susceptible to scour‐related mortality because they are still in the gravel during spring snowmelt run‐off events. The goal of our research was to understand patterns of gravel scour on the Logan River, Utah, in relation to brown trout spawning and whether mobility of spawning gravels could explain the absence of brown trout from higher elevations. We collected data to characterize local entrainment potential at spawning gravels longitudinally on the Logan River during 2009 and 2010 spring flood events. We used scour chains to measure scour depth at spawning locations, and we also examined the position of redds in channel cross sections in relation to the centre line. The flood magnitude in both years approximated the 2‐year flood magnitude, but the flood in 2009 was much longer in duration. Scour at 27% of scour chain locations exceeded the estimated median upper limit of developing fry in 2009, whereas scour at 0% of locations exceeded this depth in 2010. Brown trout spawned in locations with similar entrainment potential at both mid and high elevations, which contributed to a lack of trend in scour depth with elevation. In addition, the majority of areas chosen for spawning were channel margins. The relationship between local entrainment potential at spawning gravels and scour depth was similar for the mid‐elevation canyon zone with medium brown trout density and the high‐elevation noncanyon zone with low brown trout density. In a low‐elevation backwater zone containing high densities of brown trout, scour was high despite low levels of entrainment potential. Overall, findings suggest that spawning gravel scour is not limiting brown trout abundance at high elevations in this system given shallow scour depths overall and a general lack of increase in scour depth with increasing elevation/distance upstream.     

桥墩振动对其局部冲刷的影响

为了探究桥墩振动对其局部冲刷的影响,以圆柱型桥墩为例,开展了不同泥沙底床条件下的振动桥墩局部冲刷水槽试验。结果表明,在振动载荷下,对于中值粒径分别为14.42μm、31.75μm和85.92μm的细颗粒底床,当振动强度从0增大至3.72,最大冲刷深度和最大冲刷半径均随之增大;中值粒径为14.42μm的泥沙底床最大冲刷深度增幅最大达910%,且粒径越大,增幅越小。对于中值粒径为260μm的粗颗粒底床,当振动强度从0增至2.31,最大冲刷深度降低了37.50%,而最大冲刷半径增加了38.37%。因此,桥墩的振动对其局部冲刷有着重要影响,且对细颗粒底床和粗颗粒底床的影响不同。桥墩振动导致有黏性的细颗粒泥沙发生流变从而加剧了其局部冲刷;而无黏性的粗颗粒泥沙受到振动作用而加密,其局部冲刷削弱。提出了考虑桥墩振动的局部冲刷深度计算公式,其理论计算值与实测值相对误差在±20%的数据达87.5%,能够为涉水桥梁基础埋深的设计提供更合理的计算依据。     

泄水建筑物下游冲刷坑二维数值模拟

对巨亭水电站泄水建筑物下游局部冲刷过程进行了二维数值模拟。采用RNG k-ε湍流模型封闭N-S方程、有限体积法在计算网格上离散求解、VOF方法追踪自由水面;采用C语言编写用户自定义函数,以泥沙起动切应力作为床面泥沙起动判别标准,通过分析比较水流剪切力与泥沙起动切应力大小,用以控制冲刷坑底部边界变化;采用局部重构模型和弹簧光顺模型更新计算区域和网格质量,藉以模拟和追踪局部冲刷坑边界变化。研究表明,模拟结果与实测资料符合良好。在冲刷坑的冲刷过程中,床面剪切应力随着冲刷的进程急剧减小,湍动能随着冲刷的进程减小缓慢;床面剪切应力和湍动能沿程变化均较为剧烈,床面剪切应力沿程先增大后减小,床面湍动能则沿程减小。冲刷坑的纵向平衡形态或床面泥沙起动主要决定于床面剪切应力,床面湍动能对泥沙起动也具有重要影响。     

Hydrochemistry of the hyporheic zone in salmon spawning gravels: a preliminary assessment in a degraded agricultural stream

Hydrochemical changes were monitored in a simulated, sea run salmon redd in a small agricultural stream in northeast Scotland following the 1998–1999 spawning season. Immediately after redd construction, the hydrochemical characteristics of hyporheic water, at depths of 0.1 m and 0.3 m, were very similar to stream water. These apparently well‐mixed waters were alkaline, well‐oxygenated and enriched in nutrients. In the weeks and months following redd construction, clear and statistically significant differences in the chemistry of stream and hyporheic waters were observed. Typically, hyporheic water had lower concentrations of dissolved oxygen (mean 7.35 mg L^?1 at 0.3 m depth) than stream waters (mean=11.26 mg L^?1). Alkalinity, calcium, sulphate and conductivity levels tended to be higher in hyporheic waters, with concentrations increasing with depth. These data implied an increasing influence of groundwater with depth in the hyporheic zone following redd construction; an inference supported by subsequent hydraulic head measurements, which revealed an upwards groundwater flux in the stream bed. However, groundwater–surface water interactions were dynamic and complex: road salts eluted into the stream during periods of snowmelt simulated tracer experiments that implied that a reversed hydraulic gradient may occur at high flows with deeper streamwater penetration and mixing in the hyporheic zone. High flows also result in the mobilization of fine sediments from the stream bed which subsequently infiltrated into spawning gravels. These appear to cause ‘capping’ of redds and probably reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the redd matrix. Infiltrating sediments also contain a small, but probably important organic component, the decomposition of which may contribute to oxygen consumption and nutrient mineralization in the hyporheic zone. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

桥墩局部冲刷发展过程的三维动网格模拟

基于FLUENT软件的动网格更新技术和用户自定义函数功能实现了桥墩局部冲刷过程的三维动态模拟。以Melville经典冲刷试验为原型,建立数值模型。将河床面设置为主要的动边界,当床面结点瞬时剪应力大于临界剪应力时,结点位置下移,表现为冲刷,引入Van Rijn提出的沉积输运函数来控制河床面各结点的运动速度。数值模拟结果在流场形态,冲坑发生发展过程及冲坑形态均与试验结果较为吻合,模拟的冲坑深度略小于试验结果,误差约13%。误差产生的主要原因为基于雷诺平均N-S的湍流模型不能有效地反应钝形桥墩前端湍流脉动的影响。     

挟沙水流的冲刷率及河床惯性的研究

在清水水流河床冲刷率的实验研究基础上，本文进一步研究了挟涉水流来沙率对冲刷率的影响。结果说明挟抄水流的冲刷率随来沙率与水流输沙力欠饱和度之比以负指数律降低。当来水挟抄率与水流饱和输抄率相等时，冲刷率降刊0。河床惯性是河床在非恒定流中一种重要的动力学性质。利用河床惯性与冲刷率的关系测量了各种沙样的河床惯性值。发现河床惯性随床沙颗粒分选系数增大而增大，分选系数很大时趋近于极限值50t／Tn0。利用河床惯性和河床变形方程得出了冲刷过程中水流输沙率沿程和随时间的变化规律，结果说明水流输沙率欠饱和度向下游以负指数律下降，这与冲刷率随实际水流挟沙率与欠饱和度之比以指数率下降的规律有耜同意义。河床惯性愈大，实际水流输沙率增长得愈慢。河床惯性与于容重及摩阻流速之比构成的无困次数A。代表河床变形和水流实际挟沙量对水流挟沙力变化的响应程度。     

Laboratory Investigation of Stilling Basin Slope Effect on Bed Scour at Downstream of Stepped Spillway: Physical Modeling of Javeh RCC Dam

Stepped spillway and stilling basin are one of the most important energy dissipation structures. Eventhough, most of energy dissipated by these structures, but in skimming flow, the upstream flow motion is nonaerated and the residual energy capable to destroyed structures during floods. In this study, effect of stilling basin slope on bed scour, downstream of Javeh dam was investigating. Experiments performed in hydraulic structures laboratory of the University of Kerman with six different discharges (5, 7, 13, 17, 25 and 30 l/s.m) and five various stilling basin slope (0.02, 0.01, 0, ?0.01 and???0.02). The parameters such as maximum scour depth (d_s), flow velocity (in three point), water depth on upstream and downstream of stepped spillway and stilling basin, the distance of the maximum scour depth to sill (L_s) and the gheometery of scour hole measured. Result shown that when stilling basin slopes was 0.02, the average of maximum relative scour depth, 47% Increased and in ?0.02, 52.2% Decreased. In addition, the distance of maximum scour depth until stilling basin increased by increasing and decreased by decreasing the stilling basin slope.

     

Scour around submarine pipes due to high-amplitude transient waves

Estimation of scour dimensions below submarine pipelines is a vital step in designing offshore infrastructure. Extreme events like tsunami waves produce strong erosive forces below the underwater pipes, apt to create scour holes, jeopardizing the safety of the structure. Despite the importance of this issue, previous studies have mainly focused on steady flow cases, and the scour pattern below submarine pipes induced by high-amplitude transient waves has rarely been investigated. This paper reports the results of 40 experimental runs on transient wave-induced scour below a model pipe in a laboratory flume under a variety of initial conditions. The variables included the bed particle size and gradation,initial water depth, wave height, and slope of the bed layer. Waves were generated by a sudden release of water from a sluice gate, installed in the middle of the flume. A pressure transducer data acquisition system was used to record the wave heights at different time steps. The results indicate that, with a shallower initial depth of flow, the scour depth is relatively large. It was also found that there exists a direct correlation between the induced wave height and the size of the scour hole. It was observed that, in clear water conditions, the size of the scour hole in coarse sediments is smaller, while in live-bed conditions, larger scour holes are created in coarser sediments. It was also observed that at high wave amplitudes, the live-bed conditions are dominant, and consequently the bed elevation is altered.     

A hydrodynamic investigation of brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) redd selection at the riffle scale

High‐resolution velocity profile measurements were taken over a series of riffles on a gravel‐bed stream using a Pulse Coherent Acoustic Doppler Profiler (PCADP) to quantify the fluid structure of riffles and nests (redds) where brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) spawned. Velocity profiles were obtained on a highly discretized planometric scale ranging between 20 and 40 cm grid spacings, with vertical observations occurring every 1.6 cm. From the velocity profiles, between 15 000 and 38 000 velocity measurements were obtained over each riffle on any given day of measurement. Velocity profiles were converted to streamwise velocity magnitude, flow depth, Reynolds number, Froude number, shear stress, vertical velocity components and turbulent kinetic energy per unit area to evaluate the spatial structure of the riffles and the spatial structure of redds (pits and tailspills) relative to the surrounding riffle structure. Semi‐variograms were employed to evaluate the persistence of the fluid structure based upon the metrics evaluated. Results showed that discrete velocity observations poorly described the spatial structure of the flow system and poorly correlated with redd locations. Reynolds number analysis identified a relatively consistent fluid property for distances typically 2–3 times the longitudinal length of redds. Turbulent kinetic energy per unit area consistently identified common regions on all riffles studied that corresponded with the location selections for redds where flow was identified as essentially uni‐directional. Froude number was found to be insensitive in predicting the fluid spatial structure in wadeable flow depths and relating it to the fluid structure of redds. Results indicated that a series of metrics at varying spatial scales of turbulence may be necessary to understand the spatial complexity of redd selection. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

黏土海床管道局部冲刷的模拟研究

基于黏土的流变特性,将黏土视为一种流体,用Herschel-Bulkley模型模拟,采用计算流体力学(CFD)软件Fluent建立二维管道冲刷模型,结合SST k-ω湍流模型以及VOF两相流模型对黏土海床上管道局部冲刷进行数值模拟研究。研究分析表明:海底管道的存在增加了海流对海床的剪切应力,随悬空高度增大,海床剪应力逐渐减小。管道冲刷深度主要受黏土的不排水抗剪强度和流场流速的影响,管道的局部冲刷深度随土体强度的增大而减小,屈服应力为150 Pa时其冲刷深度为0.63D,约为屈服应力为600 Pa时的2倍。管道的局部冲刷深度随流速的增大而增大,流速每增加0.2 m/s其管道下方的冲刷深度平均会增加0.16D。受管道对流场的扰动,管道下游的尾流冲刷深度对流场流速大小更为敏感。     

桥墩局部冲刷动态模拟及不同截面的冲刷特性

为了获得桥墩局部冲刷随时间的演变过程,探讨不同截面桥墩的冲刷特性,采用计算流体动力学软件FLUENT的自定义函数功能和动网格更新技术,考虑湍流涡增强效应的床面剪应力和坡度影响的临界剪应力,得到床面的输沙率,通过输沙率与床面高程的变化关系实现床面地形随时间的动态变化,并利用泥沙坍塌的调整来克服床面坡度超过泥沙休止角造成的模拟失真及数值不稳定。结果表明:局部冲刷最大深度、冲坑形态及流场结构的模拟结果与试验结果较为吻合;在最大墩宽一致的情况下,流线形桥墩的冲坑深度比圆柱形桥墩降低约45%,比尖角形桥墩降低约40%,冲坑范围也有所下降。