Hypermedia annotation presentation: The effect of location and type on the EFL learners’ achievement in reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition

This study investigated the effect of gloss presentation in different text locations whilst participants read EFL texts in a hypermedia environment. Seventy-eight undergraduate EFL learners read and summarized seven texts and completed a vocabulary assessment. The number of propositions recalled in each summary was recorded. The data suggest that reading passages with hypermedia annotations significantly benefits passage comprehension and vocabulary (compared to reading passages with no annotations). The best performance was observed in the condition where glosses were placed after the glossed word. The study also reported large observed score mean differences for the definition gloss type of 3–5-words.     

Hypertext annotation: Effects of presentation formats and learner proficiency on reading comprehension and vocabulary learning in foreign languages

This study extends current knowledge by exploring the effect of different annotation formats, namely in-text annotation, glossary annotation, and pop-up annotation, on hypertext reading comprehension in a foreign language and vocabulary acquisition across student proficiencies. User attitudes toward the annotation presentation were also investigated. Data were collected from 83 non-English-majored university students in Taiwan in a 4-week period. Each week participants read 3 passages, each with different annotation formats as a treatment condition and one passage without annotation as a control condition. Posttests of reading comprehension and vocabulary recognition followed each passage. The results indicate that, for reading comprehension, the in-text format led to the lowest performance among all types of annotation, including the control condition. The best performance was observed in the condition where annotations were presented in the pop-up format. No interaction effect between format and proficiency was detected. For vocabulary acquisition, reading passages with hypermedia annotations significantly benefit vocabulary learning for participants of medium and high proficiencies compared with the control condition. No significant differences were found among the 3 formats. The beneficial effect, however, did not extend to low-proficiency participants. Participant feedback revealed a positive attitude toward annotations. Among the 3 annotation formats, the glossary type was considered the least preferred type by participants. Findings of the research provide insights on the design and instruction for online reading.     

Reading-strategy use by English as a second language learners in online reading tasks

This study investigates adult English language learners’ reading-strategy use when they read online texts in hypermedia learning environments. The learners joined the online Independent English Study Group (IESG) and worked both individually and collaboratively. This qualitative case study aims (a) to assess college-level ESL learners’ use of reading strategies for online second language (L2) texts and (b) to examine their use of hypertext and hypermedia resources while they read online L2 text. The seven strategies were (a) using hypermedia, (b) using computer applications and accessories, (c) dialoguing, (d) setting up reading purposes and planning, (e) previewing and determining what to read, (f) connecting prior knowledge and experiences with texts and tasks, and (g) inferring. The first two strategies were unique to online readings; the five remaining strategies apply to both online readings and paper-based text readings. The findings also revealed that “hybrid” online reading emphasized participants’ various reaction patterns and preferences in their hypermedia learning environments.     

A novel approach for enhancing student reading comprehension and assisting teacher assessment of literacy

For students of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), reading exercises are critical not only for developing strong reading comprehension, but also for developing listening, speaking, and writing skills. Prior research suggests that social, collaborative learning environments are best suited for improving language ability. However, opportunities for English learners to collaboratively practice reading comprehension are minimal, and due to resource constraints and a lack of accurate evaluation methods, English instructors rarely assess student literacy effectively. In response to these problems, we propose a Tag-based Collaborative reading learning System (TACO) that makes use of Web 2.0 Internet social tagging techniques to provide a collaborative environment for reading English. We test our system’s ability to both improve reading comprehension and aid teachers in accurately assessing literacy by conducting a three-month trial with 56 participating Taiwanese high school students from February to May 2009. During this period, post-testing results show a significant improvement in reading scores among participants in our tag-based system, and survey feedback from teachers suggests an improved capacity for literacy assessment.     

An alternative to language learner dependence on L2 caption‐reading input for comprehension of sitcoms in a multimedia learning environment

Most second/foreign language (L2) learners have difficulty understanding listening input because of its implicit and ephemeral nature, and they typically have better reading comprehension than listening comprehension skills. This study examines the effects of using an interactive advance‐organizer activity on the DVD video comprehension of L2 learners to provide an alternative to the scenario of L2 learners experiencing sensory overload in a multimedia learning environment that presents pictures, printed words and speech words. A total of 95 intermediate university‐level L2 learners with an average TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) score of 565 were placed in four conditions for an English‐language DVD viewing task, including an advance‐organizer group, a captions group, a captions plus advance‐organizer group, and a control group. The study concludes that using advance organizers as an instructional strategy facilitated participant listening comprehension and reduced participant dependence on L2 caption‐reading input by 50% for initial comprehension. Participants also held a positive attitude towards an interactive advance‐organizer activity. The details concerning the role of L2 captions in multimedia listening are also discussed. The findings provide insight into teaching listening to L2 learners who learn most of their L2 in a more reading‐dependent classroom setting and typically have enhanced L2 literacy skills.     

Enhancement of digital reading performance by using a novel web-based collaborative reading annotation system with two quality annotation filtering mechanisms

Collaboratively annotating digital texts allows learners to add valued information, share ideas, and create knowledge. However, excessive annotations and poor-quality annotations in a digital text may cause information overload and divert attention from the main content. The increased cognitive load ultimately reduces the effectiveness of collaborative annotations in promoting reading comprehension. Thus, this work develops a web-based collaborative reading annotation system (WCRAS-TQAFM) with two quality annotation filtering mechanisms—high-grade and master annotation filters—to promote the reading performance of learners. Ninety-seven students from three classes of a senior high school in Taiwan were invited to participate in an 80-min reading activity in which individual readers use WCRAS with or without annotation filters. Analytical results indicate that digital reading performance is significantly better in readers who use the high-grade annotation filter compared to those who read all annotations. Moreover, the high-grade annotation filter can enhance the reading comprehension of learners in all considered question types (i.e., recall, main idea, inference, and application). Also, the Cohen’s kappa statistics was used for assessing whether the annotation selected by the high-grade annotation filter is in agreement with the annotations selected by a domain expert. The statistic results indicate that the proposed high-grade annotation filter is valid to some degree. Finally, neither of the proposed quality annotation filtering approaches significantly reduces cognitive load.     

Effects of a computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy on EFL college students’ English reading comprehension

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of a computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy on EFL college learners’ English reading comprehension. The research questions were: (1) what was the influence of the computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy on different learners’ English reading comprehension? (2) did the computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy affect learners’ use of other English reading strategies? One hundred ninety-four freshmen who were enrolled in the English course were divided into low-level and high-level groups according to their English proficiency. A computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy was introduced to the learners in the experimental class to improve their reading ability. Through two-way ANOVA analysis, it was found that the computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy had greater reading benefit for the low-level group than for the high-level group. In addition, the results of independent sample t-test analysis indicated that the computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy enhanced learners’ use of other English reading strategies–listing, enforcing, and reviewing.     

Exploring demographic and motivational factors associated with hypertext reading by English as a foreign language (EFL) students

This study investigates nontraditional students’ of English as a foreign language self-reports of the hypertext learning experience. It determines whether factors such as gender, age, proficiency level, and hypertext learning experience influence predicting hypertext reading achievement. The subjects of this study were 23 nontraditional English majors (9 males and 14 females). Their learning efficiency was rated as low to intermediate. The primary investigation found that students generally perceived that they should have control in operating the designed hypertext system because most did not find it difficult. In addition, students could accomplish the reading tasks more quickly and easily without much mental effort. Females, older adults, and low-proficiency learners expressed more positive feedback and willingness to use the hypertext system in future compared with the other groups, although no significant differences were observed among those variables on hypertext learning experience. Hypertext comprehension performance was significantly influenced only by the factor of proficiency level. Its impact was negative and moderate. Therefore, it is suggested that the use of hypertext system demonstrated the tendency to particularly improve low-proficiency learners’ reading comprehension. Limitations and recommendations for future research are presented and discussed in light of the results of the study.     

工作记忆及语言水平对英语学习者隐喻理解的影响

本研究旨在探讨工作记忆广度和语言水平差异在中国英语学习者对隐喻句这一特定句型理解的影响。通过英语工作记忆广 度、英语语言水平及英语隐喻理解的研究测试发现,中国英语学习者的英语工作记忆广度、英语语言水平与其隐喻理解能力高度 相关,工作记忆和语言水平高低两组t 检验结果均呈显著性差异。工作记忆广度及语言水平是影响中国英语学习者隐喻理解的两 大因素,故英语学习者可以通过知识面拓展及工作记忆训练来提高自己的隐喻理解能力。     

To simplify or not? Facilitating English L2 users' comprehension and processing of open educational resources in English using text simplification

Open Educational Resources (OER) aim to provide equal access to education. Yet, as the language level used in OER presents a barrier to many learners, there is a need to make these resources more comprehensible. This study combined eye-tracking methodology and comprehension assessment to explore the effect of text simplification on English second language (L2) users, while also accounting for text organizational structure and individual predispositions. A total of 37 adult English L2 users took part in the study. They had to read either an authentic narrative, authentic expository OER or their linguistically simplified versions. The analysis showed that simplification led to better text comprehension, and text narrativity facilitated text recall, particularly at lower English proficiency levels. Eye-tracking measures revealed that text simplification led to an increase in processing time during the initial reading of the text and a decrease in processing time during text re-inspection. These findings have strong practical applications for online teaching with OER.     

Promoting contextual vocabulary learning through an adaptive computer‐assisted EFL reading system

The study developed an adaptive computer‐assisted reading system and investigated its effect on promoting English as a foreign language learner‐readers' contextual vocabulary learning performance. Seventy Taiwanese college students were assigned to two reading groups. Participants in the customised reading group read online English texts, each of which was customised by the developed system to offer immediate and repeated meetings with previously encountered unknown words, while participants in the typical reading group read online texts without control on unknown word recurrence. After the 4‐week online reading treatment, the two groups of learners were tested by online immediate and delayed vocabulary tests, and the students from the customised reading group were also required to complete the questionnaire regarding system use. The results showed that the vocabulary mean scores from both immediate and delayed testing demonstrated significantly better results in word gain and word retention with the customised reading group and that the adaptive reading system was appealing for the students. The study demonstrated that by providing customised reading with word recurrence specific to individuals' unknown words, this adaptive computer‐assisted English as a foreign language reading system creates a more favourable condition for foreign language vocabulary growth.     

English outside the academic sphere: A mobile-based context-aware comparison study on collaborative and individual learning

Context-aware ubiquitous learning (CAUL) technology provides language learners with interactive learning environments and has been found to increase learning effectiveness and self-efficacy due to student interaction, discussion and evaluation of the entire learning process. This study used a mobile-based ubiquitous learning system combined with a collaborative learning approach to develop Fitness-specific English listening and reading, and fitness knowledge. The researchers recruited two groups of participants, an individual learning group (N = 31) and a collaborative learning group (N = 30), and evaluated their learning performance via pre-and post-tests. In addition, a questionnaire explored the perceived usefulness, usability, follow-up intention of using the system and self-efficacy regarding fitness-specific English. The results show that both groups improved fitness-specific English in terms of listening and reading comprehension. Moreover, collaborative learning was found to facilitate fitness-specific knowledge, and those in the collaborative learning group improved their self-efficacy more than those in the individual learning group.     

Language learners' digital literacies: Focus on students' information literacy and reading practices online

The widespread use of technology and the Internet have changed many of language learners' everyday practices, including literacies. While there have been many studies with the focus on language learners' digital literacies, few, however, have explored language learners' digital information literacy and online reading practices with the use of social bookmarking tools, especially in a community college setting. We address this gap by investigating community-college language learners' digital literacies when social bookmarking with the focus on digital information and online reading practices from an ecological perspective. In this qualitative multiple-case study, the focal participants were five English learners, students in an English as a Second Language writing course in a community college in the northeastern United States. Data collection included interviews, observations, and researchers' e-journals. Thorough within- and cross-case analysis of data shows that language learners searched for digital texts and evaluated them based on relevance, reliability, interest, language, and importance for them and their learning community in the social bookmarking tool. The participants struggled with the number of results in search engines, keywords, and evaluation of digital texts for relevance and reliability. We show the need for more instruction, support, and guidance of language learners' digital information literacy practices as well as the benefits of providing students with opportunities to read digital texts. Our suggestions for future research include investigating the role of multimodality and other factors that influence language learners' evaluation practices when they look for and read information online.     

The effect of reflective learning e-journals on reading comprehension and communication in language learning

This study focused on the use of reflective learning e-journals in a university web-based English as a foreign language (EFL) course. In the study, a multimedia-based English programme comprising fifteen different units was delivered online as a one-semester instructional course. Ninety-eight undergraduate students participated, and they were divided into two groups: the treatment group used reflective learning e-journals, while the control group completed content-related exercises. The study investigated the effects of reflective learning e-journals and how students used them to aid learning. Results show that when learning from web-based instruction, students who used reflective learning e-journals outperformed students who did not do so in terms of reading comprehension. Using reflective e-journals improved the academic performance of learners in the online course. In addition, journal writing students claimed that they also improved their organisational skills and writing abilities through their reflective learning e-journal writing and found the journal writing to be a very helpful tool in reviewing the course and preparing for the exam.     

Reading with Strategies： A Study of Young EFL Learners＇ Use of Online Reading Strategies

To assist young learners to cultivate efficient learning strategies in the early ages, students in the current study were guided to read three authentic online storybooks and then write their own digital stories with tablet PCs. The study aims to investigate Taiwanese elementary school students＇ use of online reading strategies, and their relationship with students＇ performance on reading proficiency tests. The target population consisted of upper-grade learners （n = 83）. The instruments were a M-SORS （modified survey of reading strategy） questionnaire and a reading proficiency test. Major findings were as follows： （l） Students used online reading strategies at medium level; （2） problem solving strategies were proven to significantly correlate with students＇ performance on reading comprehension test; and （3） there was a significant difference between higher and lower reading proficiency learners＇ use of online reading strategies. Pedagogical implications of the findings and suggestion for future research are discussed.     

The potentiality of computer-assisted instruction towards ameliorating Iranian EFL learners' reading level

The fundamental objective behind the present study is to demonstrate the visible effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction upon Iranian EFL learners' reading performance, and to see if it has any impact upon this skill in the Iranian EFLeducational settings. To this end, a sample of 50 male and female EFL learners was drawn from an English language institute in Iran. After participating in a proficiency pretest, these participants were assigned into two experimental and control groups, 25 and 25, respectively. An independent sample t-test was administered to find out if there were salient differences between the findings of the two selected groups in their reading test. The key research question was to see providing learners with computer-assisted instruction during the processes of learning and instruction for learners would have an affirmative influence upon the improvement and development of their reading skill. The results pinpointed computer-assisted instruction users' performance was meaningfully higher than that of nonusers (DF = 48, P < 05). The consequences revealed that computer-assisted language learning and computer technology application have resulted in a greater promotion of students' reading improvement. In other words, computer-assisted instruction users outperformed the nonusers. The research, therefore, highlights the conclusion that EFL learners' use of computer-assisted instruction has the potential to promote more effective reading ability.     

Is single or dual channel with different English proficiencies better for English listening comprehension,cognitive load and attitude in ubiquitous learning environment?

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of English proficiency (low vs. high) and material presentation mode (single channel vs. dual channel) on English listening comprehension, cognitive load and learning attitude in a ubiquitous learning environment. An experimental learning activity was implemented using PDA as a learning tool to facilitate learning. A quasi-experimental design was employed with university students participating in the experiment. The results revealed that (a) high English proficiency learners had significantly better English listening comprehension and lower intrinsic and extraneous load than low English proficiency learners; (b) both high and low English proficiency learners learning with dual channel had significantly better English listening comprehension and held more positive attitude toward the ubiquitous learning environment than learners learning with single channel; (c) for learners learning with single channel, low English proficiency learners had significantly higher extraneous load than high English proficiency learners; and (d) for low English proficiency learners, learners who learned with dual channel possessed significantly lower extraneous load than learners who learned with single channel. The suggestions for educators and instructional designers were also discussed in the present study.     

Annotations in captioned animation: Effects on vocabulary learning and listening skills

This study investigates whether the availability of annotations for captioned animation in multimedia listening activities aids L2 vocabulary acquisition and facilitates listening skills. Fifty Arab-speaking adult EFL learners watched an audiovisual animated story under one of three conditions: (a) animation + captions + keyword annotation (ACA), (b) animation + captions (AC), and (c) animation alone (A). After viewing the animation, the learners completed computerized vocabulary recognition and listening comprehension posttests, as well as non-computerized (i.e., written) vocabulary production and listening recall tests. All four tests were administered to the students four weeks after the treatments. The results from the mixed ANOVAs indicated that the ACA group significantly outperformed the AC group on the vocabulary recognition and vocabulary production tests and that the AC group in turn substantially outperformed the A group on the same tests. Conversely, the annotations did not significantly improve listening comprehension and recall over time. The A group significantly outscored the ACA and the AC groups in listening comprehension and recall over time. The pedagogical implications of this study suggest that annotations in captioned animation facilitate vocabulary acquisition but hinder listening comprehension and recall.     

Learning English reading in a mobile-assisted extensive reading program

Previous studies on Extensive Reading Programs (ERPs) have reached positive conclusions, namely, that an ERP for language learners is effective in improving their linguistic abilities related to reading and promoting their motivation and attitudes toward reading. Current mobile devices, even though suitable for reading, have not yet been applied to develop language learners' linguistic proficiency and affective abilities in any ERP. The aim of the present study was to address this gap in literature by investigating the effects of using mobile tablet PCs in an online ERP on adolescent English learners' online activities, reading ability and users' perceptions. Two intact classes taught by a same English teacher in a senior high school in Taiwan were recruited to participate in a ten-week online ERP. One class was assigned to the mobile group reading their assignments on their tablet PCs and the other, the PC group, reading theirs on desktop PCs. During the online ERP, each class dedicated one class period every week for in-class reading and the participants in both classes were encouraged to read as many as possible after the class period. The results favored the mobile group who not only outperformed the PC group in online activities and reading achievement but also showed greater appreciation of the online ERP than their PC counterparts. The study also proposed two directions for future studies on mobile-assisted reading. They included learners' studying textbooks and their reading strategies on mobile devices.     

RoLo: A dictionary interface that minimizes extraneous cognitive load of lookup and supports incidental and incremental learning of vocabulary

Dictionary use can improve reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary learning. Nevertheless, great extraneous cognitive load imposed by the search process may reduce or even prevent the improvement. With the help of technology, dictionary users can now instantly access the meaning list of a searched word using a mouse click. However, they must spend great cognitive effort identifying the most appropriate meaning for a given context, contributing to the disruption of the flow of reading and decreasing the positive effect of dictionary use. Furthermore, dictionary users face difficulty in exploiting accumulative illustrations from multiple contexts to understand obscure words whose appropriate meanings are not in the dictionary or are difficult to identify. To address these issues and to offer language learners, especially lifelong learners, effective support for incremental and incidental learning of vocabulary through reading, this research proposes a dictionary interface named RoLo (Remind on Lookup). Each time an unfamiliar word is re-looked up, RoLo reminds users about contextual information and word knowledge learned in previous encounters of the word in an appropriate manner. Two studies were conducted to evaluate RoLo. The first study, with 34 participants, examined the effect of RoLo use on incidental vocabulary learning. The second examination, involving 43 participants who used the prototype of RoLo for one month, investigated dictionary users' evaluation of RoLo. The results show that RoLo helps dictionary users enhance vocabulary learning and text comprehension and search for unfamiliar words more easily and faster.