Automated building extraction from IKONOS images in suburban areas

The article addresses automatic building extraction from IKONOS images in suburban areas. In the proposed approach, we used a stereo pair of IKONOS images. Automatic photogrammetric methods of image matching were used to generate a digital surface model (DSM) and a digital elevation model. In further processing, single-image methods were used. The orthophotos of individual bands were created. The initial building mask was generated from the calculated normalized DSM (nDSM). The calculated normalized difference vegetation index and the road data extracted from the existing topographical database were used to remove vegetation and traffic surfaces. The mask was further improved with our own combination of methods based on non-linear diffusion filtering, unsupervised classification, colour segmentation and region growing. The final mask was vectorized using the Hough transform. Compared with a reference building database, 83.2% of the buildings in the test area were detected using the proposed approach with a quality percentage (how likely a building pixel produced by an automatic approach is correct) of 49.46.     

LiDAR和航空影像集成的复杂建筑物重建研究

利用航空影像和LiDAR数据各自的优势点而进行的融合为复杂建筑物三维重建提供了一种可靠的途径。利用LiDAR数据获取建筑物初始边界,在航空影像中提取出边界特征,从而对初始建筑物边界进行精化;针对少量错误和丢失的建筑物边界进行编辑,开发了相应的软件系统。对某研究区域进行实验,并从重建建筑物模型的正确性、完整性和精度三方面进行分析,证明了所提出算法的可行性和有效性。     

Building detection in an urban area using lidar data and QuickBird imagery

This article presents a hierarchical approach to detect buildings in an urban area through the combined usage of lidar data and QuickBird imagery. A normalized digital surface model (nDSM) was first generated on the basis of the difference between a digital surface model and the corresponding digital terrain model. Then, ground objects were removed according to a height threshold. In consideration of the relief displacement effect in very high resolution remote-sensing imagery, we segmented the nDSM by the region-growing method and used the overlap ratio to avoid over-removing building objects. Finally, the region size and spatial relation of trees and buildings were used to filter out trees occluded by buildings based on an object-based classification. Compared with previous methods directly using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), our method improved the completeness from 85.94% to 90.20%. The overall accuracy of the buildings detected using the proposed method can be up to 94.31%, indicating the practical applicability of the method.     

一种应用机载LiDAR数据和高分辨率遥感影像提取城市绿地信息的方法

提出了一种新的面向对象的城市绿地信息两阶段提取方法。该方法分阶段使用高分辨率遥感影像的光谱和2维形态信息以及机载LiDAR数据的3维形态信息作为分类依据。第1阶段,影像首先被分割为对象,对象被分类为无阴影的植被、阴影下的植被、水体、建筑物、空地和阴影6类地物;无阴影的植被和阴影下的植被合并为城市绿地对象,在第2阶段,将LiDAR数据产生的归一化数字表面模型nDSM与绿地对象叠加,计算每个对象的3维形态属性,进一步将绿地对象细分为草坪、灌木和乔木。以美国休斯敦中心城区为例,介绍了方法流程。精度分析表明,绿地的分类精度达到9346%;方法中的主要误差来源于遥感影像当中的建筑物阴影以及生成数字地形模型时所产生的误差。     

Delineation of individual deciduous trees in plantations with low-density LiDAR data

Delineation of individual deciduous trees with Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data has long been sought for accurate forest inventory in temperate forests. Previous attempts mainly focused on high-density LiDAR data to obtain reliable delineation results, which may have limited applications due to the high cost and low availability of such data. Here, the feasibility of individual deciduous tree delineation with low-density LiDAR data was examined using a point-density-based algorithm. First a high-resolution point density model (PDM) was developed from low-density LiDAR point cloud to locate individual trees through the horizontal spatial distribution of LiDAR points. Then, individual tree crowns and associated attributes were delineated with a 2D marker-controlled watershed segmentation. Additionally, the PDM-based approach was compared with a conventional canopy height model (CHM) based delineation. The results demonstrated that the PDM-based approach produced an 89% detection accuracy to identify deciduous trees in our study area. The tree attributes derived from the PDM-based algorithm explained 81% and 83% of tree height and crown width variations of forest stands, respectively. The conventional CHM-based tree attributes, on the other hand, could explain only 71% and 66% of tree height and crown width, respectively. Our results suggest that the application of the PDM-based individual tree identification in deciduous forests with low-density LiDAR data is feasible and has relatively high accuracy to predict tree height and crown width, which are highly desired in large-scale forest inventory and analysis.     

Pixel- and feature-level fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data for urban land-use classification

The complexity of urban areas makes it difficult for single-source remotely sensed data to meet all urban application requirements. Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) can provide precise horizontal and vertical point cloud data, while hyperspectral images can provide hundreds of narrow spectral bands which are sensitive to subtle differences in surface materials. The main objectives of this study are to explore: (1) the performance of fused lidar and hyperspectral data for urban land-use classification, especially the contribution of lidar intensity and height information for land-use classification in shadow areas; and (2) the efficiency of combined pixel- and object-based classifiers for urban land-use classification. Support vector machine (SVM), maximum likelihood classification (MLC), and object-based classifiers were used to classify lidar, hyperspectral data and their derived features, such as the normalized digital surface model (nDSM), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and texture measures, into 15 urban land-use classes. Spatial attributes and rules were used to minimize misclassification of the objects showing similar spectral properties, and accuracy assessments were carried out for the classification results. Compared with hyperspectral data alone, hyperspectral–lidar data fusion improved overall accuracy by 6.8% (from 81.7 to 88.5%) when the SVM classifier was used. Meanwhile, compared with SVM alone, the combined SVM and object-based method improved OA by 7.1% (from 87.6 to 94.7%). The results suggest that hyperspectral–lidar data fusion is effective for urban land-use classification, and the proposed combined pixel- and object-based classifiers are very efficient and flexible for the fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data.     

基于LiDAR和CCD数据的地形与建筑提取方法优化及精度评价

借助机载小光斑激光雷达点云数据,采用Kraus滤波法结合增强Canny算子优化提取数字高程模型,然后结合LiDAR数据中提取的nDSM和粗糙度特征,以及CCD数据中获得的光谱属性和几何属性,应用多源特征融合面向对象影像分类方法,以提高城市环境下遥感分类的可靠性和建筑实体信息提取精度。结果表明:DEM估测值变异解释能力达到96%,其均方根误差1.15 m,拟合的直线紧贴1∶1线;同时,结合粗糙度、光谱信息和形态指数等信息分类的方法不仅缓解了分类“噪声”,降低了错分现象,且精度较高;研究区内建筑的面积决定系数大多高于0.7,高度信息的估测值变异解释能力也均达到92%以上,表明基于多源特征融合的面向对象分类方法结果可靠且对建筑的三维结构参数提取精度高。     

Semi-supervised classification trees

In many real-life problems, obtaining labelled data can be a very expensive and laborious task, while unlabeled data can be abundant. The availability of labeled data can seriously limit the performance of supervised learning methods. Here, we propose a semi-supervised classification tree induction algorithm that can exploit both the labelled and unlabeled data, while preserving all of the appealing characteristics of standard supervised decision trees: being non-parametric, efficient, having good predictive performance and producing readily interpretable models. Moreover, we further improve their predictive performance by using them as base predictive models in random forests. We performed an extensive empirical evaluation on 12 binary and 12 multi-class classification datasets. The results showed that the proposed methods improve the predictive performance of their supervised counterparts. Moreover, we show that, in cases with limited availability of labeled data, the semi-supervised decision trees often yield models that are smaller and easier to interpret than supervised decision trees.     

Complete residential urban area reconstruction from dense aerial LiDAR point clouds

We present an automatic system to reconstruct 3D urban models for residential areas from aerial LiDAR scans. The key difference between downtown area modeling and residential area modeling is that the latter usually contains rich vegetation. Thus, we propose a robust classification algorithm that effectively classifies LiDAR points into trees, buildings, and ground. The classification algorithm adopts an energy minimization scheme based on the 2.5D characteristic of building structures: buildings are composed of opaque skyward roof surfaces and vertical walls, making the interior of building structures invisible to laser scans; in contrast, trees do not possess such characteristic and thus point samples can exist underneath tree crowns. Once the point cloud is successfully classified, our system reconstructs buildings and trees respectively, resulting in a hybrid model representing the 3D urban reality of residential areas.     

全波形激光雷达和航空影像联合的地物分类

针对机载激光雷达与航空光学影像的互补特性,提出了一种基于多源遥感数据的高精度地物信息提取和分类方法。首先从激光雷达的全波形数据获得数字高程模型(DEM)、地物的正规化数字表面模型(nDSM)和激光雷达回波相对强度信息,从航空数码相机影像获得植被指数信息;然后利用决策树方法进行地物识别。选取“黑河综合遥感联合试验”中的3种典型区域(城市、农田和水体)进行分类,结果表明：该方法能够有效地分离建筑物、高大植被、低矮植被、裸土地以及水泥地等基本地物。     

Assessing changes of forest area and shrub encroachment in a mire ecosystem using digital surface models and CIR aerial images

This paper presents an approach to assess increase and decrease (2002–1997) of forest area and other wooded areas in a mire biotope in the Pre-alpine zone of Central Switzerland using logistic regression models and airborne remote sensing data (CIR aerial images, DSM derived from them). The present study was carried out in the framework of the Swiss Mire Protection Program, where increase and decrease of forest areas are key issues. In a first step, automatic DSMs were generated using an image matching approach from CIR aerial images of 1997 and 2002. In a second step, the DSMs were co-registered and normalized using LiDAR data. Tree layers from both years of various levels of detail were then generated combining canopy covers derived from normalized DSMs with a multi-resolution segmentation and a fuzzy classification. On the basis of these tree layers, fractional tree/shrub covers were calculated using explanatory variables derived from these DSMs only. Bias was estimated by analysing the distribution of the fractional model differences. The corrected models reveal a decrease of tree/shrub probability which indicates a decrease of forest and other wooded areas between 1997 and 2002. The models also indicate real shrub encroachment in open mire. The detection of shrub encroachment may be helpful for selective logging purposes for sustainable mire habitat management. The study stresses the importance of high-resolution and high-quality DSMs and highlights the potential of fractional covers for ecological modeling.     

A model-based approach for automatic building database updating from high-resolution space imagery

This article presents an approach for automatic building database updating from high-resolution space imagery based on the support vector machine (SVM) classification and building models. The developed approach relies on an idea that the buildings are similar in shape within an urban block or a neighbourhood unit. First, the building patches are detected through classification of the pan-sharpened high-resolution space imagery along with the normalized digital surface model (nDSM) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) using the binary SVM classifier. Then, the buildings that exist in the vector database but not seen in the image are detected through the analyses of the detected building patches. The buildings, which were constructed after the compilation date of the existing vector database, are extracted through the proposed model-based approach that utilizes the existing building database as a building model library. The approach was implemented in selected urban areas of the Batikent district of Ankara, the capital city of Turkey, using the IKONOS images and the existing building database. The results validated the success of the developed approach, with the building extraction accuracy computed to be higher than 80%.     

基于对象的最优尺度建筑物信息提取方法

针对基于像素分析方法不适用于高分辨率影像信息提取的问题,提出一种基于对象的图像分析方法来进行城市建筑信息提取。采用多分辨率图像分割方法得到图像对象,提出非监督的最优尺度判定方法解决单尺度分割造成的欠分割和过分割问题。在对象分类提取过程中,结合LiDAR数据的地形表面高程信息和光谱信息对建筑物进行提取,并利用尺寸、空间位置等信息进行误分类修正。实验区域共提取出18个建筑目标,结果表明所提出的方法有效可行。     

Use of lidar-derived NDTI and intensity for rule-based object-oriented extraction of building footprints

Buildings play an essential role in urban intra-construction, planning, and climate. The precise knowledge of building footprints not only serves as a primary source for interpreting complex urban characteristics, but also provides regional planners with more realistic and multidimensional scenarios for urban management. The recently developed airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) technology provides a very promising alternative for building-footprint measurement. In this study, lidar intensity data, a normalized digital surface model (nDSM) of the first and last returns, and the normalized difference tree index (NDTI) derived from the two returns are used to extract building footprints using rule-based object-oriented classification. The study area is chosen in London, Ontario, based on the various types of buildings surrounded by trees. An integrated segmentation approach and a hierarchical rule-based classification strategy are proposed during the process. The results indicate that the proposed object-based classification is a very effective semi-automatic method for building-footprint extraction, with buildings and trees successfully separated. An overall accuracy of 94.0% and a commission error of 6.3% with a kappa value of 0.84 are achieved. Lidar-derived NDTI and intensity data are of great importance in object-based building extraction, and the kappa value of the proposed method is double that of the object-based method without NDTI or intensity.     

Intelligent data analysis with fuzzy decision trees

Intelligent data analysis has gained increasing attention in business and industry environments. Many applications are looking not only for solutions that can automate and de-skill the data analysis process, but also methods that can deal with vague information and deliver comprehensible models. Under this consideration, we present an automatic data analysis platform, in particular, we investigate fuzzy decision trees as a method of intelligent data analysis for classification problems. We present the whole process from fuzzy tree learning, missing value handling to fuzzy rules generation and pruning. To select the test attributes of fuzzy trees we use a generalized Shannon entropy. We discuss the problems connected with this generalization arising from fuzzy logic and propose some amendments. We give a theoretical comparison on the fuzzy rules learned by fuzzy decision trees with some other methods, and compare our classifiers to other well-known classification methods based on experimental results. Moreover, we show a real-world application for the quality control of car surfaces using our approach.     

基于建筑物提取的精细尺度人口估算研究

以精细尺度的人口估算为目标,提出一种根据居民区建筑物属性估算人口数量的方法。首先基于Dempster-Shafer证据理论,结合LiDAR数据和高分辨率遥感影像进行建筑物的自动提取。根据土地利用分类图排除提取结果中的非居民区建筑后,按照线性回归的思想,通过对居民建筑物的数量、面积、体积等几何属性的优化选择建立人口估算模型。实验表明,利用该估算模型能够获得较高精度的小面积目标区域上的估算结果。该方法提高了人口估算的精细程度和自动化程度。     

Automatic extraction and delineation of single trees from remote sensing data

In this paper, we present a novel approach for the automatic extraction of trees and the delineation of the tree crowns from remote sensing data, and report and evaluate the results obtained with different test data sets. The approach is scale-invariant and is based on co-registered colour-infrared aerial imagery and a digital surface model (DSM). Our primary assumption is that the coarse structure of the crown, if represented at the appropriate level in scale-space, can be approximated with the help of an ellipsoid. The fine structure of the crown is suppressed at this scale level and can be ignored. Our approach is based on a tree model with three geometric parameters (size, circularity and convexity of the tree crown) and one radiometric parameter for the tree vitality. The processing strategy comprises three steps. First, we segment a wide range of scale levels of a pre-processed version of the DSM. In the second step, we select the best hypothesis for a crown from the overlapping segments of all levels based on the tree model. The selection is achieved with the help of fuzzy functions for the tree model parameters. Finally, the crown boundary is refined using active contour models (snakes). The approach was tested with four data sets from different sensors and exhibiting different resolutions. The results are very promising and prove the feasibility of the new approach for automatic tree extraction from remote sensing data. The major part of this work was carried out while both authors worked together at the Institute of Photogrammetry and GeoInformation, University of Hannover.     

A comparison of machine and deep-learning algorithms applied to multisource data for a subtropical forest area classification

ABSTRACT

This work explores the integration of airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and WorldView-2 (WV2) images to classify the land cover of a subtropical forest area in Southern Brazil. Different deep and machine learning methods were used: one based on convolutional neural network (CNN) and three ensemble methods. We adopted both pixel- (in the case of CNN) and object-based approaches. The results demonstrated that the integration of LiDAR and WV2 data led to a significant increase (7% to 16%) in accuracies for all classifiers, with kappa coefficient (κ) ranging from 0.74 for the random forest (RF) classifier associated with the WV2 dataset, to 0.92 for the forest by penalizing attributes (FPA) with the full (LiDAR + WV2) dataset. Using the WV2 dataset solely, the best κ was 0.81 with CNN classifier, while for the LiDAR dataset, the best κ was 0.8 with the rotation forest (RotF) algorithm. The use of LiDAR data was especially useful for the discrimination of vegetation classes because of the different height properties among them. In its turn, the WV2 data provided better performance for classes with less structure variation, such as field and bare soil. All the classification algorithms had a nearly similar performance: the results vary slightly according to the dataset used and none of the methods achieved the best accuracy for all classes. It was noticed that both datasets (WV2 and LiDAR) even when applied alone achieved good results with deep and machine learning methods. However, the advantages of integrating active and passive sensors were evident. All these methods provided promising results for land cover classification experiments of the study area in this work.     

无人机LiDAR 场地勘测及BIM 规划设计研究与实践

基于无人机激光雷达航测获取地面几何模型和影像信息具有快速、高效和高精度 的特点,而且其数字化成果具备向建筑信息模型(BIM)平台迁移的优势,使用无人机激光雷达 设备开展了测图全流程实验,并分析了航测数据精度,探索了利用成果数据进行BIM 规划设计 应用的可行性及意义。研究成果验证了无人机LiDAR 测绘数据作为BIM 前期工程项目数据的 可行性,提升了BIM 设计的效率,拓展了工程全生命周期数据链形式。     

Building classification trees using the total uncertainty criterion

We present an application of the measure of total uncertainty on convex sets of probability distributions, also called credal sets, to the construction of classification trees. In these classification trees the probabilities of the classes in each one of its leaves is estimated by using the imprecise Dirichlet model. In this way, smaller samples give rise to wider probability intervals. Branching a classification tree can decrease the entropy associated with the classes but, at the same time, as the sample is divided among the branches the nonspecificity increases. We use a total uncertainty measure (entropy + nonspecificity) as branching criterion. The stopping rule is not to increase the total uncertainty. The good behavior of this procedure for the standard classification problems is shown. It is important to remark that it does not experience of overfitting, with similar results in the training and test samples. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.