Wavelet analysis of plate wave propagation in composite laminates

A new approach is presented for the analysis of transient waves propagating in composite laminates. The wavelet transform (WT) using the Gabor wavelet is applied to the time–frequency analysis of dispersive plate waves. It is shown that the peaks of the magnitude of WT in the time–frequency domain are related to the arrival times of group velocity. Experiments are performed using a lead break as the simulated acoustic emission source on the surface of quasi-isotropic and unidirectional graphite/epoxy laminates. For predictions of the dispersion of the flexural mode, Mindlin plate theory is shown to give good agreement with the experimental results. The planar source location based on the flexural wave is performed using a triangulation method. The use of frequency-dependent arrival time of output signal and angular dependence of group velocity provides accurate results of source location for anisotropic laminates.     

Impact identification on a sandwich plate from wave propagation responses

This study investigates the use of an impact detection algorithm to locate a potentially damaging impact on an orthotropic plate by detecting the stress waves generated by such an event. The proposed algorithm was tested experimentally on a sandwich plate by using ultrasonic signals. The arrival times of stress waves at different frequencies at the sensor locations were determined by analyzing the recorded signals using the wavelet transforms. The stress wave propagation phenomenon was characterized by measuring the propagation speeds along different directions. This data along with the sensor co-ordinates were input into the impact detection algorithm, which uses the difference in time of flight to the sensors and trigonometric identities to locate impact source locations. The accuracy of the method was demonstrated by the close agreement observed between the estimated locations for the three impact locations studied with the actual locations of the impact loads applied. In particular, maximum error in the estimation of the co-ordinates of the impact location was less than 9% for all different types of loading considered.     

Localization of a ``Synthetic' Acoustic Emission Source on the Surface of a Fatigue Specimen

The finite geometry of a laboratory specimen influences a measured acoustic emission waveform because of reflections, transmission, and mode conversion at the interface and boundaries of the specimen, thus making it difficult to determine the location of an acoustic emission (AE) source. The objective of this investigation is to develop a model experiment to identifiy the exact source location on the surface using ``synthetic' AE signals. The AE event is generated by a short local thermal expansion. This expansion is produced by the absorption of a short laser pulse which provides a noncontact and broad-band generation of elastic waves. The signals are detected by a noncontact, broad-band, and high-fidelity sensor: a laser interferometer. The triangulation with several detectors is replaced by a single probe laser interferometer located at different coordinates under reproducible conditions. The recorded signals are analyzed by wavelet transform in order to determine the arrival times of waves for several frequency levels. These arrival times are used to quantify the location of the AE source in the surface as well as the velocity of the most dominant feature, the Rayleigh wave, and the time lag between the instant of the AE and the recording of the signal. The accuracy of the method is demonstrated by comparing the identified source location with the exact one.     

A new algorithm for acoustic emission localization and flexural group velocity determination in anisotropic structures

This paper presents a new in situ Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) system able to identify the location of acoustic emission (AE) sources due to low-velocity impacts and to determine the group velocity in complex composite structures with unknown lay-up and thickness. The proposed algorithm is based on the differences of stress waves measured by six piezoelectric sensors surface bonded. The magnitude of the Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) squared modulus was employed for the identification of the time of arrivals (TOA) of the flexural Lamb mode (A₀). Then, the coordinates of the impact location and the flexural wave velocity were obtained by solving a set of non-linear equations through a combination of global Line Search and backtracking techniques associated to a local Newton’s iterative method. To validate this algorithm, experimental tests were conducted on two different composite structures, a quasi-isotropic CFRP and a sandwich panel. The results showed that the impact source location and the group speed were predicted with reasonable accuracy (maximum error in estimation of the impact location was approximately 2% for quasi-isotropic CFRP panel and nearly 1% for sandwich plate), requiring little computational time (less than 2 s).     

基于三维弹性理论的碳纤维板中Lamb波建模

基于主动Lamb波的结构健康监测是目前复合材料结构损伤监测技术研究的热点之一,了解Lamb波的传播特性对进行可靠的损伤监测非常重要.本文结合经典三维弹性理论与Lamb波的运动位移方程,对碳纤维复合材料板中传播的Lamb波传播特性进行了建模研究,在此基础上推导了碳纤维板的相速度频散曲线,并讨论了Lamb波传播方向与坐标轴之间的夹角及碳纤维铺层方向对频散曲线的影响,建模结果证明了这种建模方法的正确性.     

Warped basis pursuit for damage detection using lamb waves

This paper presents a novel time-frequency procedure based on the warped frequency transform (WFT) to process multi-mode and dispersive Lamb waves for structural health monitoring (SHM) applications. The proposed signal processing technique is applied to time waveforms recorded at an array of scan points after waveguide excitation. The WFT is combined with a basis pursuit algorithm to extract the distance traveled by the ultrasonic waves even in the case of multi-modal dispersive propagation associated with broadband excitation of the waveguide. This is obtained through a decomposition of the acquired signals using dictionaries composed by optimized atomic functions which are designed to match the spectro-temporal structure of the various propagating modes. The warped basis pursuit (W-BP) analysis of several acquired waveforms results in distance signals that can be combined through classical beamforming techniques for acoustical source imaging purposes. A masking procedure is also proposed to suppress imaging noise. This approach is tested on experimental data obtained by broadband guided wave excitation in a 1-mm-thick aluminum plate with an artificially introduced through crack and tiny holes, followed by multiple waveguide displacement recording through a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer. Dispersion compensation, high-resolution source, and defect imaging are demonstrated even in domain regions that are not directly accessible for measurement.     

Time-reversed Lamb waves

Lamb waves are extensively involved in plate structure inspection because of their guided nature. However, their dispersive nature often limits their use in flaw detection. In this paper we show that the use of a time-reversal mirror (TRM) allows to automatically compensate for the dispersive nature of Lamb waves. Experiments showing the spatial and temporal behavior of time-reversed Lamb waves, demonstrate the ability of TRMs to self-focus and to recompress dispersive pulses. This is demonstrated in a set of experiments in which a broadband ultrasonic laser source is used to simulate a point Lamb wave source and an optical interferometer is used to map the time reversed elastic field. We also show that TRM may work in pulse echo mode and allows to detect and to focus along large 2-D plates on any flaws located in the inspected area.     

Lamb wave tomography and its application in pipe erosion/corrosion monitoring

Ultrasonic Lamb wave techniques are widely used in a number of NDE applications. To excite Lamb waves, mode conversion of bulk waves or photoacoustic excitation often are used. Both of these approaches suffer from the need for liquid couplant or ablation of materials to reach a good signal-to-noise ratio. In this paper, we propose a novel technique that utilizes point source excitation and detection of Lamb waves through dry, elastic contacts to monitor velocity changes. A pair of pin transducers is used to excite and detect theA ₀ mode Lamb wave in the pipe wall, and the wave velocity is obtained by time-of-flight measurement. Any change in the pipe wall thickness can be detected by the change in the Lamb wave velocity due to the dispersive nature of theA ₀ mode. We demonstrate the power of this approach in ultrasonic pipe erosion/corrosion monitoring and its potential application in aircraft skin defect imaging. We present results of measurements of plate thickness and erosion/corrosion in a section of pipe that was removed from service, as well as imaging of defects in an aluminum thin plate.     

激光激发薄管中超声兰姆波的数值模拟

用有限元方法,对薄管中热弹机制产生的激光超声进行了研究。在考虑材料热物理参数随温度变化的前提下,得到了薄铝管中的温度场和表面的超声导波,描绘了薄铝管中的逆时针向不同接收点处表面导波的时域波形图。由波形图可知,薄圆管中的激光超声导波是典型的L(0,m)模态的超声Lamb波,同时数值结果验证了管道中L(0,2)模式是传播速度最快且频散较小的导波,为激光超声导波在管道无损检测中的应用打下了一定的基础。     

Group velocity and characteristic wave curves of Lamb waves in composites: Modeling and experiments

The propagation characteristics of Lamb waves in composites, with emphasis on group velocity and characteristic wave curves, are investigated theoretically and experimentally. In particular, the experimental study focuses on the existence of multiple higher-order Lamb wave modes that can be observed from piezoelectric sensors by the excitation of ultrasonic frequencies. Using three-dimensional (3-D) elasticity theory, the exact dispersion relations governed by transcendental equations are numerically solved for an infinite number of possible wave modes. For symmetric laminates, a robust method by imposing boundary conditions on the mid-plane and top surface is proposed to separate symmetric and anti-symmetric wave modes. A new semi-exact method is developed to calculate group velocities of Lamb waves in composites. Meanwhile, three characteristic wave curves: velocity, slowness, and wave curves are adopted to analyze the angular dependency of Lamb wave propagation. The dispersive and anisotropic behavior of Lamb waves in a two different types of symmetric laminates is studied in detail theoretically. In the experimental study, two surface-mounted piezoelectric actuators are excited either symmetric or anti-symmetric wave modes with narrowband signals, and a Gabor wavelet transform is used to extract group velocities from arrival times of Lamb wave received by a piezoelectric sensor. In comparison with the results from the theory and experiment, it is confirmed that multiple higher-order Lamb waves can be excited from piezoelectric actuators and the measured group velocities agree well with those from 3-D elasticity theory.     

Combined solution for fault location in three-terminal lines based on wavelet transforms

This work presents the study and development of a combined fault location scheme for three-terminal transmission lines using wavelet transforms (WTs). The methodology is based on the low- and high-frequency components of the transient signals originated from fault situations registered in the terminals of a system. By processing these signals and using the WT, it is possible to determine the time of travelling waves of voltages and/or currents from the fault point to the terminals, as well as estimate the fundamental frequency components. A new approach presents a reliable and accurate fault location scheme combining some different solutions. The main idea is to have a decision routine in order to select which method should be used in each situation presented to the algorithm. The combined algorithm was tested for different fault conditions by simulations using the ATP (Alternative Transients Program) software. The results obtained are promising and demonstrate a highly satisfactory degree of accuracy and reliability of the proposed method.     

Impact Force Identification of CFRP Structures Using Experimental Transfer Matrices

This paper presents a method for identifying the location and force history of an impact force acting on CFRP structures such as laminated plates and stiffened panels. The identification method is an experimental one without using any analytical model of the structure. Here, experimental transfer matrices, which relate the impact force to the corresponding responses of PZT sensors, are used to identify the impact force. The transfer matrices are preliminarily constructed from the measured data obtained by impact tests with an impulse hammer. To identify the impact location, the arrival times of the flexural waves to the PZT sensors are used, and an analog band-pass filter is used to obtain waves with a specified frequency. The wave velocity is determined experimentally from impact test results. The present method is verified experimentally by performing impact force identification of CFRP laminated plates and CFRP stiffened panels. The results reveal that the location and force history of the impact force can be identified accurately and rapidly using the present method.     

基于粒子滤波的液态场环境声源定位方法

研究了石油储罐罐底腐蚀声发射源的定位方法.针对有限空间液态场中水声信号的多途效应严重影响声源目标定位问题,提出一种基于粒子滤波的到达时间差(TDOA)声源定位方法,充分考虑广义互相关结果中多途效应导致的多个峰值,采用高斯似然函数进行重要性采样,实现对多途效应影响的抑制.水池实验结果表明这种方法比传统的Chan方法具有更高的定位准确性和精度,定位结果的均方根误差(RMSE)为Chan方法的10%,提高了定位性能.     

The power flow angle of acoustic waves in thin piezoelectric plates

The curves of slowness and power flow angle (PFA) of quasi-antisymmetric (A0) and quasi-symmetric (S0) Lamb waves as well as quasi-shear-horizontal (SH0) acoustic waves in thin plates of lithium niobate and potassium niobate of X-,Y-, and Z-cuts for various propagation directions and the influence of electrical shorting of one plate surface on these curves and PFA have been theoretically investigated. It has been found that the group velocity of such waves does not coincide with the phase velocity for the most directions of propagation. It has been also shown that S0 and SH0 wave are characterized by record high values of PFA and its change due to electrical shorting of the plate surface in comparison with surface and bulk acoustic waves in the same material. The most interesting results have been verified by experiment. As a whole, the results obtained may be useful for development of various devices for signal processing, for example, electrically controlled acoustic switchers.     

Research Developments and Prospects on Microseismic Source Location in Mines

Microseismic source location is the essential factor in microseismic monitoring technology, and its location precision has a large impact on the performance of the technique. Here, we discuss the problem of low-precision location identification for microseismic events in a mine, as may be obtained using conventional location methods that are based on arrival time. In this paper, microseismic location characteristics in mining are analyzed according to the characteristics of the mine’s microseismic wavefield. We review research progress in mine-related microseismic source location methods in recent years, including the combination of the Geiger method with the linear method, combined microseismic event location method, optimization of relative location method, location method without pre-measured velocity, and location method without arrival time picking. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods are discussed, along with their feasible conditions. The influences of geophone distribution, first arrival time picking, and the velocity model on microseismic source location are analyzed, and measures are proposed to influence these factors. Approaches to solve the problem under study include adopting information fusion, combining and optimizing existing methods, and creating new methods to realize high-precision microseismic source location. Optimization of the velocity structure, along with applications of the time-reversal imaging technique, passive time-reversal mirror, and relative interferometric imaging, are expected to greatly improve microseismic location precision in mines. This paper also discusses the potential application of information fusion and deep learning methods in microseismic source location in mines. These new and innovative location methods for microseismic source location have extensive prospects for development.     

考虑材料各向异性的纤维增强聚合物基复合材料板损伤Lamb波检测和定位

超声Lamb波法是检测板状结构损伤的常用方法,然而纤维增强聚合物基复合材料（Fiber reinforced plastics,FRP）本身的各向异性会对Lamb波损伤定位的精度造成较大的影响。为了解决此问题,在传统椭圆法的基础上,提出了考虑材料各向异性的时间概率密度法的损伤定位方法。该方法通过考虑不同传播方向的A₀模态波的群速度变化,计算FRP板上任意一点存在损伤的反射波的走时,得到声波传播时间图。创建声波传播时间与实际损伤反射波走时的映射关系,可得到能表征损伤存在概率的时间概率密度图,通过相应的数值分析和实验研究,发现本方法误差比传统椭圆法误差的减小率可达到70%以上,论证本方法对各向异性FRP板损伤定位的可行性和准确性。      

The Capability Assessment of the Spectrum Decomposition Technique for Measurements of the Group Velocity of Lamb Waves

The ultrasonic guided waves are dispersive waves characterized by the phase and group velocities dispersion curves. In order to use guided waves in various industrial applications, their parameters must be known. Since these guided wave velocities depend on the frequency and thickness of the material, they propagate differently comparing to bulk ultrasonic waves. Therefore, to analyze the parameters of such waves, new measurement techniques should be proposed and possibilities of their application have to be investigated. In this paper possibilities to measure the group velocity based on the spectrum decomposition approach are presented. The investigations are carried out using the simulated and experimental signals of Lamb wave propagating in a 2 mm thickness aluminium plate. The two fundamental modes \(\hbox {A}_{0}\) and \(\hbox {S}_{0}\) are selected. Using the proposed technique, segments of the group velocity dispersion curves have been reconstructed and compared with the dispersion curves calculated by the SAFE method to estimate errors. Accordingly to the obtained lower absolute and relative errors, an optimal set of narrowband filters with bandwidth from 20 kHz up to 100 kHz for the \(\hbox {A}_{0}\) mode and from 80 kHz up to 160 kHz for the \(\hbox {S}_{0}\) mode are proposed. Applying the proposed optimal frequency sets of narrowband filters for the experimental signals, segments of the group velocity dispersion curves for both modes are reconstructed. The average relative error for the \(\hbox {A}_{0}\) mode is 1.7–2.2% (expanded relative uncertainty ± (2.2–2.8)%) and 0.78–1.2% (expanded relative uncertainty ± (0.5–0.8)%) for the \(\hbox {S}_{0}\) mode.     

基于近场波束形成法的声发射源定位研究

引入近场波束形成法处理声发射信号,研究在小区域布置少量传感器来实现声发射源定位的新方法.首先,利用板波理论进行声发射信号传播特性研究,对比了板中声发射信号与空气中声波传播的差异性,分析了波束形成法应用于声发射源定位的问题.并在板上进行断铅实验,验证了近场波束形成法进行声发射源定位的有效性.最后,在旋转机械碰摩模拟实验台上进行了碰摩实验,利用波束形成法进行碰摩声发射源定位,所提出的方法能有效地定位旋转机械初始碰摩位置.所得结果可为声发射源定位提供一种新途径.     

The propagation of Lamb waves in a laminated composite plate with a variable stepped thickness

In this study Lamb waves propagating in a laminated composite plate with stepped thickness variance are characterized through experiments. Understanding the characteristics of Lamb waves is very important for developing a structural health monitoring system, as the number, size, and location of transducers should be determined at the structural design stage. Thin piezoelectric (PZT) transducers bonded to the surface were used for the generation and reception of Lamb waves. The influences of stepped thickness variance were investigated with measurement of group velocities and frequency analyses of the received signals. In addition, a mode analysis was conducted by a mutual transmitting–receiving method making use of the difference between the signals received from a pair of PZTs consisting of transmitter and receiver.     

Generation of narrowband antisymmetric lamb waves using a formed laser source in the ablative regime

A formed laser source, using a four-element lenticular array, is used in the ablative regime to generate select, narrowband, acoustic plate waves. The arrangement of the array produces acoustical signals that have frequencies compatible with the response of the broadband capacitive air-coupled transducer used in this study. A simplified concept is presented to explain the effect of a line array source on the frequency content of acoustic waves. The analytical model for a point pulse surface displacement is derived from the point load solution to Lamb's problem. The point pulse displacement elements of a line array source are summed mathematically, taking into account all applicable propagation modes and dispersion of plate waves. The model considers only the out-of-plane displacement of the antisymmetric plate modes to represent the detection capability of the broadband receiver. The distribution function of the laser beam energy profile is modified to depict the actual energy distribution that illuminates the surface of the plate. Filtering functions are made compatible with the sensitivity of the broadband receiver so as to retain only the detected frequencies in the model. The theoretical model showed good agreement with experimental results.