Die structure optimization of equal channel angular extrusion for AZ31 magnesium alloy based on finite element method

Three-dimensional(3D)geometric models with different corner angles(90°and 120°)and with or without inner round fillets in the bottom die were designed.Some important process parameters were regarded as the calculation conditions used in DEFORMT M-3D software,such as stress—strain data of compression test for AZ31 magnesium,temperatures of die and billet,and friction coefficient.Influence of friction coefficient on deformation process was discussed.The results show that reasonable lubrication condition is im...     

模具外角对等通道转角挤压纯铝变形过程的影响

模具外角对等通道转角挤压(ECAE)变形过程影响较大,文章利用有限元软件(MSC.Marc)模拟研究了模具外角对ECAE过程中等效应变、变形机理的影响。模拟结果表明,模具外角Ψ>0°～30°的范围内,等效应变的分布较为均匀;当模具外角Ψ>30°时,等效应变的分布越来越不均匀;当模具外角Ψ=0°～90°范围内逐渐增大时,试样的变形机理由单一剪切变形逐渐变为剪切变形与弯曲变形相结合的复合变形行为。为了验证模拟结果,对大尺寸纯铝进行了等通道转角挤压实验(模具内角Ф=90°,模具外角Ψ=30°),纯铝实验应变值的分布与大小和模拟应变值的分布与大小近似吻合。由光学显微组织可知,经ECAE挤压一次后,变形试样组织较为均匀,晶粒得到一定程度细化。     

The effect of material properties and tooling design on deformation and fracture during equal channel angular extrusion

The effects of material constitutive behavior, tooling design, and friction conditions on metal flow, stress fields, and the tendency for tensile fracture during equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) were established using a finite element modeling (FEM) technique. Three different material behaviors, typical of those encountered during cold and hot working, were investigated; these comprised (i) strain hardening, (ii) rigid, perfectly plastic, and (iii) flow softening types of behavior. The tooling geometries consisted of a so-called “simple” design with no moving channel members and a “complex” design with a sliding bottom floor. The FEM results indicated that the most uniform flow was obtained during ECAE of a strain-hardening material having a low strain-rate sensitivity in tooling with a sharp inner corner (“front leg”) radius. The ECAE of materials with other constitutive behaviors or in tooling with a radiused front leg showed some degree of flow nonuniformity, even away from the head and tail of the extrusion. Tooling design and material properties were also predicted to have an important influence on the tensile stresses and hence tensile damage developed during ECAE. The FEM results were validated using visioplasticity and fracture observations for AISI 4340 steel and a near-gamma titanium aluminide alloy.     

圆形工件等通道转角挤压应变分布和塑性变形区的三维有限元分析

利用三维有限元方法模拟了圆形工件的等通道转角挤压过程,分析了工件上应变分布情况,其与理论值和二维模拟的结果符合较好.通过对稳定变形阶段塑性变形区的分析,探讨了应变分布不均匀的原因,所得结果有利于理解工件变形过程和优化工艺设计.     

工业纯铝等通道球形转角膨胀挤压变形的力学与摩擦学性能

对传统等通道转角挤压工艺(equal channel angular extrusion,ECAE)进行改进,提出一种新型剧烈塑性变形法(severe plastic deformation,SPD)——等通道球形转角膨胀挤压(equal channel angular expansion extrusion with spherical cavity,ECAEE-SC)。该工艺通过耦合镦-剪-挤等多种变形效应,可在单道次挤压下实现坯料内部较大的塑性应变累积,进而获得理想的晶粒细化与性能提升效果。在室温条件下采用ECAEE-SC工艺对工业纯铝(Al-1060)进行单道次挤压,并与相同条件下的2道次ECAE处理变形结果进行对比。采用EBSD、SEM等测试手段,研究了工业纯铝经ECAEE-SC变形晶粒特征与磨损表面形貌,并测试了变形材料显微硬度、拉伸性能与摩擦学性能。结果表明,在ECAEE-SC工艺剧烈塑性应变诱导下,工业纯铝经单道次挤压变形后晶粒显著细化,呈典型的剪切条带状特征。与初始退火态相比,变形材料显微硬度与抗拉伸强度分别提升了92.6%和91.8%,且性能提升效果明显优于2道次ECAE变形。同时,ECAEE-SC工艺有效提高了工业纯铝的耐磨性能,工业纯铝变形后表面磨痕宽度最小,磨痕深度最浅,其磨损机理以磨粒磨损为主导。     

Equal channel angular extrusion of NiTi shape memory alloy tube

As a new attempt, equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) of nickel–titanium shape memory alloy (NiTi SMA) tube was investigated by means of process experiment, finite element method (FEM) and microscopy. NiTi SMA tube with the steel core in it was inserted into the steel can during ECAE of NiTi SMA tube. Based on rigid-viscoplastic FEM, multiple coupled boundary conditions and multiple constitutive models were used for finite element simulation of ECAE of NiTi SMA tube, where the effective stress field, the effective strain field and the velocity field were obtained. Finite element simulation results are in good accordance with the experimental ones. Finite element simulation results reveal that the velocity field shows the minimum value in the corner of NiTi SMA tube, where severe shear deformation occurs. Microstructural observation results reveal that severe plastic deformation leads to a certain grain orientation as well as occurrence of substructures in the grain interior and dynamic recovery occurs during ECAE of NiTi SMA tube. ECAE of NiTi SMA tube provides a new approach to manufacturing ultrafine-grained NiTi SMA tube.     

纯铜薄板矩形盒拉深中法兰曲边的变形分析

作为矩形盒拉深试验研究的一部分 ,分析了成形过程中光刻网格变形的测量结果 ,指出法兰曲边变形中 ,角对称线上凹模口附近的径向拉变形随矩形盒角半径rc 增大而增大 ,但周向压变形几乎与rc 无关。并且在角对称线上存在径向压变形的区域 ,有助于减低曲边材料的流入抵抗     

Process simulation using finite element method — prediction of cutting forces, tool stresses and temperatures in high-speed flat end milling

End milling of die/mold steels is a highly demanding operation because of the temperatures and stresses generated on the cutting tool due to high workpiece hardness. Modeling and simulation of cutting processes have the potential for improving cutting tool designs and selecting optimum conditions, especially in advanced applications such as high-speed milling. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for simulating the cutting process in flat end milling operation and predicting chip flow, cutting forces, tool stresses and temperatures using finite element analysis (FEA). As an application, machining of P-20 mold steel at 30 HRC hardness using uncoated carbide tooling was investigated. Using the commercially available software DEFORM-2D™, previously developed flow stress data of the workpiece material and friction at the chip–tool contact at high deformation rates and temperatures were used. A modular representation of undeformed chip geometry was used by utilizing plane strain and axisymmetric workpiece deformation models in order to predict chip formation at the primary and secondary cutting edges of the flat end milling insert. Dry machining experiments for slot milling were conducted using single insert flat end mills with a straight cutting edge (i.e. null helix angle). Comparisons of predicted cutting forces with the measured forces showed reasonable agreement and indicate that the tool stresses and temperatures are also predicted with acceptable accuracy. The highest tool temperatures were predicted at the primary cutting edge of the flat end mill insert regardless of cutting conditions. These temperatures increase wear development at the primary cutting edge. However, the highest tool stresses were predicted at the secondary (around corner radius) cutting edge.     

Analysis of Dynamic Loads on the Dies in High Speed Sheet Metal Forming Processes

During high-speed sheet metal forming processes, the speed at which the work piece contacts the die tooling is on the order of hundreds of meters per second. When the impact is concentrated over a small contact area, the resulting contact stress can compromise the structural integrity of the die tooling. Therefore, it is not only important to model the behavior of the workpiece during the high-speed sheet metal forming process, but also important to predict accurately the associated workpiece/tooling interface loads so that engineers can more confidently propose robust die tooling designs. The foundation to accurate predictions of contact stress on die tooling is a reliable contact model within the context of a finite element simulation. In literature, however, there exists no comprehensive guideline for establishing a contact model for high-speed sheet metal forming processes using the finite element method. In this paper, mathematically justified contact model recommendations are offered for the electrohydraulic forming (EHF) process.     

Al_2O_（3sf）/AZ91D镁基复合材料等径角挤压变形机制研究

为了推动半固态加工在镁基复合材料成形中的应用,采用液态浸渗法制备了增强体体积分数为5%的Al2O3sf/AZ91D复合材料,并采用等径角挤压对其实施变形。利用光学显微镜、扫描电镜和拉伸实验机分别对试样进行了组织观察和力学性能测试,并以此为基础探讨了复合材料在等径角挤压过程中的变形机制。研究表明：Al2O3sf/AZ91D 1道次挤压后,其基体是剪切变形后动态再结晶组织;当试样存在缺陷时,试样的变形机制除剪切变形外,同时还存在压缩变形;在等径角挤压过程中,由于试样在模具转角处的不均匀变形使得铸造缺陷消除的同时也产生了新的缺陷（裂纹）。因此,在等径角挤前应对复合材料进行密实变形,或采用低压浸渗和高压凝固复合技术,以消除制备过程中产生的铸造缺陷。     

AZ91D镁合金等径道角挤压制备半固态坯数值模拟

基于半固态坯采用等径道角挤压（ECAE）制备的应用背景，采用PRO／E建立了等径道角挤压的几何模型，通过压缩实验获取了AZ91D镁合金的高温应力应变曲线，采用有限元软件DEFORM-3D对ECAE挤压变形过程进行了模拟，分析了内外转角部位的应力（平均应力、最大主应力和等效应力）变化、应变分布情况等，以揭示等径道角挤压变形跟模具内转角半径的关系。结果表明，模具内转角半径不为零时，坯料挤压过程中，将有正虚力存在，并且内外转角应力变化不尽相同；应变分布不均匀，具有一定梯度；内转角部位，除了承受剪切，还受到压缩作用，外转角反之。     

Role of strain path change in grain refinement by severe plastic deformation: A case study of equal channel angular extrusion

Equal-channel angular extrusion (ECAE) provides exciting opportunities to explore the role of strain path change (SPC) in grain refinement by severe plastic deformation (SPD). In this study, crystal plasticity simulations were carried out using a viscoplastic self-consistent model for a face-centered cubic model material processed via an extended range of processing routes and with two die angles (90° and 120°). Each processing route was defined according to the interpass billet rotation angle (χ), which varied from 0° to 180° at intervals of 15°. Based on a statistical analysis of the simulated slip activities, it is proposed that differences in grain refinement among these cases can be best correlated to key differences in the slip activities, i.e. the significance of newly activated slip systems at pass-to-pass transitions corresponding to macroscopic SPCs. Accordingly, grain refinement is anticipated to be most efficient for routes with χ near 75° for the 90° die or 0–45° for the 120° die, and least efficient with χ near 180° for both dies. The relative grain refinement efficiencies thus predicted are in good overall agreement with those indicated by the generation of high-angle boundaries and reduction of grain size in pure copper measured by electron back-scatter diffraction. It is suggested that the effect of SPC and the resulting characteristic slip activities should be incorporated in understanding the effectiveness of grain refinement and unpinning the underlying grain subdivision mechanisms in SPD with different SPCs.     

摆动辗压件成形过程中产生的缺陷及防止办法

本文简述了摆辗变形的特征及其力学分析,同时给出了摆辗变形过程中经常产生的四种缺陷:薄件中心开裂;大头件侧表面开裂;高件失稳折迭及锻不透等缺陷。指出,由于摆辗工艺的特殊性。上模与工件始终有一个接触小区,压力高,且模具在热辗时受热疲劳作用,中心常产生龟裂、塌陷等缺陷。文中最后给出了防止产生缺陷的措施和提高模具寿命的方法。对于厚件和大头带杆件应适当控制每转进给量;对于薄件要适当加大进给量或采用局部加厚的办法;冷辗大头件要注意原始坯料表面质量、控制好模具间隙均可以减少裂缝、失稳折迭等缺陷的产生。     

Optimum design of forging dies using fuzzy logic in conjunction with the backward deformation method

A novel shape optimization method is presented for the design of preform die shapes in multistage forging processes using a combination of the backward deformation method and a fuzzy decision making algorithm. In the backward deformation method, the final component shape is taken as the starting point, and the die is moved in the reverse direction with boundary nodes being released as the die is raised. The optimum die shape is thereby determined by taking the optimum reverse path. A fuzzy decision making approach is developed to specify new boundary conditions for each backward time increment based on geometrical features and the plastic deformation of the workpiece. In order to demonstrate this approach, a design analysis for an axisymmetric disk forging is presented in this paper.     

往复挤压变形ZK60镁合金应变分布的有限元数值模拟

利用有限元法研究ZK60镁合金在多道次往复挤压过程中的应变分布。为优化往复挤压工艺,研究摩擦条件和模具结构尺寸对ZK60合金总等效塑性应变分布的影响。结果表明：ZK60合金试样经往复挤压后内应变分布不均匀。试样两个端部的应变量低于试样中间部位的应变量。工艺参数对应变分布的影响很大。试样和模具间的摩擦不利于试样内应变量的均匀分布,因而应尽量降低摩擦。为了提高应变量的均匀分布,应该使用较大的过渡圆角半径和较低的挤压角度。     

平面精压长矩形板模具表面形状的解析模型

应用平面精压工序精压长矩形板时,若将平面精压模具的表面制造成微凸面形状,则平面精压时,刚好使模具表面变形成平面,使工件获得平整的表面。根据翁克索夫等人提出的镦粗时接触面上的摩擦切应力分布规律,分析了长矩形板平面精压时,接触面上摩擦切应力按线性分布摩擦定律情况下工件与模具的变形。利用主应力法求出接触面上的分布压应力,导出了平面精压长矩形板模具表面微凸面形状的解析公式。     

The influence of severe plastic deformation on the mechanical properties of AA6111

The alloy AA6111 has been chosen in many countries for automotive outerbody panels, but low ductility remains a major obstacle to competition with steel. Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) was used as a tool to produce fine-grained structures with enhanced ductility. Conventional grain sizes in the range of 9 μm to 50 μm were used to investigate the influence of severe plastic deformation (SPD) and heat treatment on mechanical properties of AA6111 sheet at room temperature. It has been found that SPD by ECAE followed by heat treatment leads to an increase in both strength and ductility, in addition to highr-value. The increase in mechanical properties was also significantly influenced by heat-treatment temperature at the final stage of sheet processing. For more information, contact KiHo Rhee, Cooperative Research Centre for Cast Metals Manufacturing, School of Physics and Materials Engineering, Monash University; VIC, 3800, Australia; +61 3 9905 1967; fax +61 3 9905 4940; e-mail kiho.rhee@spme.monash.edu.au.     

Room-temperature equal channel angular extrusion of pure magnesium

In this paper, we demonstrate a way to impart severe plastic deformation to magnesium at room temperature to produce ultrafine grain size of ～250 nm through equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE). The strategy to deform magnesium at lower temperature or to achieve such grain sizes has been proposed as: (i) to obtain a suitable initial orientation with high Schmid factor for basal slip and low Schmid factor for pyramidal/prismatic slip; (ii) to take advantage of low stacking fault energy of basal and high stacking fault energies of prismatic/pyramidal planes in order to relatively work-harden the basal plane with respect to the pyramidal/prismatic plane; and (iii) to lower the temperature of deformation in steps, leading to continual refinement of grains, resulting in finer grain size. The experimental as well as simulated texture of ECAE-processed samples indicate that the deformation mechanism leading to ultrafine grain size is slip-dominated. The recrystallization mechanism during ECAE has been found to be orientation-dependent.     

扭压变形的准三维刚塑性有限元分析

本文探讨应用刚塑性有限元模拟扭压变形（变形中沿坯料高度方向施加压力，同时沿横截面方向施加扭矩）时所遇到的具体处理技术，提出一系列算法，开发了镦粗、扭压变形通用的有限元模拟软件，并用该软件将扭压变形时金属的流动规律同一般镦粗时的情况进行了分析、比较。     

Modelling texture development during equal channel angular extrusion of aluminium

The deformation textures that develop in aluminium during ECAE (without rotation of the billet) have been investigated experimentally and modelled using the FC-Taylor approach, for two different die angles (90 and 120°), by using actual deformation histories measured from scribed marker grids. This has shown that the deformation during ECAE can best be described in terms of streamline coordinates and involves a simple shear parallel to the streamline, which becomes aligned with the final extrusion direction, and a plane strain tension and compression component that develops as the material enters and leaves the dies deformation zone. The textures observed were similar to those found following torsion straining and had the main components {001}〈110〉 and {112}〈110〉 along a B partial fibre. However, in the case of ECAE, the positions of maximum intensity were rotated by ~15–20° about the transverse direction (TD). Similar textures were seen for even and odd numbers of extrusion passes, suggesting that the TD rotation is not caused by alignment of the fibre direction with the die’s ‘shear plane’, as has been previously reported. In contrast, texture simulations showed that this rotation occurs as a consequence of the additional plane strain compression component in ECAE deformation.