Mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities in relation to climate in North West Europe

This study aimed to investigate mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities for feed and food production in North Western Europe during the last two decades, including trends over time and co-occurrence between toxins, and to assess possible effects of climate on the presence of mycotoxins. For these aims, analytical results related to mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities, collected in the course of national monitoring programmes in Finland, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands during a 20-year period, were gathered. Historical observational weather data, including daily relative humidity, rainfall and temperature, were obtained from each of these four countries. In total 6382 records, referring to individual sample results for mycotoxin concentrations (one or more toxins) in cereal grains were available. Most records referred to wheat, barley, maize and oats. The most frequently analysed mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and zearalenone. Deoxynivalenol had the highest overall incidence of 46%, and was mainly found in wheat, maize and oats. Mycotoxins that showed co-occurrence were: deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol in oats; deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in maize and wheat; and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in oats. The presence of both deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in wheat increased with higher temperatures, relative humidity and rainfall during cultivation, but the presence of nivalenol was negatively associated with most of these climatic factors. The same holds for both nivalenol and deoxynivalenol in oats. This implies that climatic conditions that are conducive for one toxin may have a decreasing effect on the other. The presence of HT-2 toxin in oats showed a slight decreasing trends over time, but significant trends for other toxins showed an increasing presence during the last two decades. It is therefore useful to continue monitoring of mycotoxins. Obtained results can be used for development of predictive models for presence of mycotoxins in cereal grains.     

中国谷物真菌毒素污染研究现状

谷物易受多种真菌毒素污染且消费量巨大，是人畜真菌毒素的主要摄入来源。本文统计了2009年至今关于我国谷物中真菌毒素污染的研究报道，发现国内的研究大多集中在水稻、小麦和玉米，而杂粮作物少之又少。其中，水稻受真菌毒素污染情况较轻；小麦主要受镰刀菌毒素污染，尤其是脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇和玉米赤霉烯酮；玉米则易感染多种真菌毒素。此外，小杂粮薏米、燕麦、谷子和高粱也有不同程度的污染。为明确谷物质量安全隐患，有效缓解谷物中真菌毒素的污染，我们应进一步加强对重要杂粮作物中真菌毒素的监管力度，建立更全面的真菌毒素筛查方法，建设真菌毒素防控标准化体系，强化农民对真菌毒素防控的意识与技术。     

Strategies to reduce mycotoxin levels in maize during storage: a review

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the main cereals as a source of food, forage and processed products for industry. World production is around 790 million tonnes of maize because as a staple food it provides more than one-third of the calories and proteins in some countries. Stored maize is a man-made ecosystem in which quality and nutritive changes occur because of interactions between physical, chemical and biological factors. Fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination are of major concern. Aspergillus and Fusarium species can infect maize pre-harvest, and mycotoxin contamination can increase if storage conditions are poorly managed. Prevention strategies to reduce the impact of mycotoxin in maize food and feed chains are based on using a hazard analysis critical control point systems (HACCP) approach. To reduce or prevent production of mycotoxins, drying should take place soon after harvest and as rapidly as feasible. The critical water content for safe storage corresponds to a water activity (a _w) of about 0.7. Problems in maintaining an adequately low a _w often occur in the tropics where high ambient humidity make the control of commodity moisture difficult. Damage grain is more prone to fungal invasion and, therefore, mycotoxin contamination. It is important to avoid damage before and during drying, and during storage. Drying maize on the cob before shelling is a very good practice. In storage, many insect species attack grain and the moisture that can accumulate from their activities provides ideal conditions for fungal activity. To avoid moisture and fungal contamination, it is essential that the numbers of insects in stored maize should be kept to a minimum. It is possible to control fungal growth in stored commodities by controlled atmospheres, preservatives or natural inhibitors. Studies using antioxidants, essential oils under different conditions of a _w, and temperature and controlled atmospheres have been evaluated as possible strategies for the reduction of fungal growth and mycotoxin (aflatoxins and fumonisins) in stored maize, but the cost of these treatments is likely to remain prohibitive for large-scale use.     

Rapid and advanced tools for mycotoxin analysis: a review

The problems associated with mycotoxin contamination of foods and feeds are well established and, in many cases, have been known for a long time. Consequently, the techniques for detecting known mycotoxins are quite advanced and range from methods for directly detecting the toxins themselves, based upon physical characteristics of the toxins, to methods for indirectly detecting the toxins, such as immunoassays. This review focuses on recent technologies that can be used to detect mycotoxins and, as such, is not a comprehensive review of the mycotoxin analytical literature. Rather, the intent is to survey the range of technologies from those that are instrument intensive such as modern chromatographic methods to those that require no instrumentation, such as certain immunoassays and biosensors. In particular, mass spectrometric techniques using ambient ionization offer the intriguing possibility of non-destructive sampling and detection. The potential application of one such technique, desorption electrospray ionization (DESI), is demonstrated for fumonisin B₁ on maize. While methods for detecting mycotoxins are quite advanced, the need remains for assays with increased throughput, for the exploration of novel detection technologies, and for the comprehensive validation of such technologies as they continue to be developed.     

Fungi and natural incidence of selected mycotoxins in barley rootlets

The storage of barley rootlets is increasingly employed to provide raw material for pig feeding in Brazil. Barley rootlets represent an important feedstuff for animal production due to their high levels of protein and fiber, and low price. However, poor management of raw materials during storage can result in fungal growth, the loss of nutritive substances and contamination by mycotoxins. The aims of this work were (1) to identify fungi associated with barley rootlets used as pig feedstuff raw material, and (2) to identify and quantify selected mycotoxins naturally produced by isolated mycotoxin-producing species in this substrate over a year. Samples were examined for fungal counts and genera distribution. Fumonisin B₁ and aflatoxin B₁ contamination were determined using high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Barley rootlet samples were of low hygienic quality. Although a broad survey was undertaken, low fungal diversity was found. Fusarium verticillioides was the most prevalent species followed by Aspergillus flavus. Despite Aspergillus clavatus being widely associated with high-moisture sprouted grains including brewers’ grains, and causing toxicity to livestock, it was not detected in this work. Although pre-harvest contamination of the barley crop, as in the maize, could occur, the barley might support F. verticillioides/Fusarium proliferatum growth when grain is remoistened during the germination and malting process and it might even continue during storage on pig farms. All samples were positive for fumonisin B₁ whereas aflatoxin B₁ contamination was not detected. It is important to point out the potential risk of fumonisin contamination in barley rootlets used as animal feed. Fusarium toxins are important not so much for their acute effects as for the chronic syndromes reported worldwide. The obtained results reveal the need for periodic monitoring of raw materials to avoid problems in animal production and hazards to animal and human health.     

A Review on Mycotoxins in Food and Feed: Malaysia Case Study

Fungi are distributed worldwide and can be found in various foods and feedstuffs from almost every part of the world. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by some fungal species and may impose food safety risks to human health. Among all mycotoxins, aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes, deoxynivalenol (DON and T‐2 toxin), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisins (FMN) have received much attention due to high frequency and severe health effects in humans and animals. Malaysia has heavy rainfall throughout the year, high temperatures (28 to 31 °C), and high relative humidity (70% to 80% during wet seasons). Stored crops under such conditions can easily be contaminated by mycotoxin‐producing fungi. The most important mycotoxins in Malaysian foods are AFs, OTA, DON, ZEN, and FMN that can be found in peanuts, cereal grains, cocoa beans, and spices. AFs have been reported to occur in several cereal grains, feeds, nuts, and nut products consumed in Malaysia. Spices, oilseeds, milk, eggs, and herbal medicines have been reported to be contaminated with AFs (lower than the Malaysian acceptable level of 35 ng/g for total AFs). OTA, a possible human carcinogen, was reported in cereal grains, nuts, and spices in Malaysian market. ZEN was detected in Malaysian rice, oat, barley, maize meal, and wheat at different levels. DON contamination, although at low levels, was reported in rice, maize, barley, oat, wheat, and wheat‐based products in Malaysia. FMN was reported in feed and some cereal grains consumed in Malaysia. Since some food commodities are more susceptible than others to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination, more stringent prevention and control methods are required.     

Mycotoxin contamination of foods in Southern Africa: A 10-year review (2007–2016)

Major staple foods in Southern Africa are prone to mycotoxin contamination, posing health risks to consumers and consequent economic losses. Regional climatic zones favor the growth of one or more main mycotoxin producing fungi, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. Aflatoxin contamination is mainly reported in maize, peanuts and their products, fumonisin contamination in maize and maize products and patulin in apple juice. Lack of awareness of occurrence and risks of mycotoxins, poor agricultural practices and undiversified diets predispose populations to dietary mycotoxin exposure. Due to a scarcity of reports in Southern Africa, reviews on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa have mainly focused on Central, Eastern and Western Africa. However, over the last decade, a substantial number of reports of dietary mycotoxins in South Africa have been documented, with fewer reports documented in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Despite the reported high dietary levels of mycotoxins, legislation for their control is absent in most countries in the region. This review presents an up-to-date documentation of the epidemiology of mycotoxins in agricultural food commodities and discusses the implications on public health, current and recommended mitigation strategies, legislation, and challenges of mycotoxin research in Southern Africa.     

茶叶中真菌毒素污染的国内外研究概况

本文综述了国内外与茶叶真菌毒素污染有关的研究,结果表明,红茶、绿茶、白茶和黑茶都可能污染真菌和真菌毒素,应引起我国相关部门的重视。为降低真菌毒素污染茶叶的风险,建议加强茶叶毒素检测,普查各类茶叶真菌毒素污染情况;应用过程控制原理,筛选不产毒素菌株发酵黑茶,监测发酵过程,建立安全的黑茶发酵技术体系。     

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in maize and maize-derived food in China and estimation of dietary intake

ABSTRACT

A total of 576 samples marketed in China, including maize, maize flour, maize grits and maize meal, was determined for the simultaneous presence of 12 mycotoxins (FB₁, FB₂, FB₃, DON, 3-DON, 15-DON, ZEN, AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂ and OTA) using a validated UPLC-MS/MS for multi-mycotoxin method. DON were the most widespread mycotoxins (63%), followed by FB₁ (57%) and ZEN (46%). 78% of the samples was contaminated with at least one of these mycotoxins. Risk assessment indicated that maize and maize-derived food intake does not pose a potential risk for general adult population with respect to individual mycotoxin. However, two or more mycotoxins were detected in 60% of all samples, and a combination of up to seven different mycotoxins was found. A particular attention should be paid to the combined exposure of mycotoxins, in this cases the estimated daily intake might increase greatly due to the high frequency of co-occurrence.     

Impact of mechanical shelling and dehulling on Fusarium infection and fumonisin contamination in maize

Mechanical shelling and dehulling methods were tested to evaluate their impact on Fusarium infection and fumonisin contamination in maize. All shelling methods which were tested were found to damage the grains. The IITA® sheller caused the highest level (up to 3.5%) of damage. Fusarium populations were higher on damaged grains, the highest being recorded from grains damaged by the IITA® sheller (2533.3 cfu g^-1). Fumonisin levels were higher in damaged grains, the highest being in maize shelled with the IITA® sheller (2.2 mg kg^-1). Fumonisin levels were positively and significantly correlated with the percentage of damage caused by the shelling methods, and with the number of Fusarium colonies in maize. Mechanical dehulling methods significantly reduced fumonisin levels in maize, resulting in a mean reduction of 62% for Mini-PRL, 65% for Engelberg, and 57% for the attrition disc mill. It is important for farmers to choose appropriate shelling methods to reduce mycotoxin contamination. Dehulling should be widely promoted for the reduction of mycotoxins in maize.     

Climate change impacts on natural toxins in food production systems, exemplified by deoxynivalenol in wheat and diarrhetic shellfish toxins

Climate change is expected to affect food and feed safety, including the occurrence of natural toxins in primary crop and seafood production; however, to date, quantitative estimates are scarce. This study aimed to estimate the impact of climate change effects on mycotoxin contamination of cereal grains cultivated in the terrestrial area of north west Europe, and on the frequency of harmful algal blooms and contamination of shellfish with marine biotoxins in the North Sea coastal zone. The study focused on contamination of wheat with deoxynivalenol, and on abundance of Dinophysis spp. and the possible relationship with diarrhetic shellfish toxins. The study used currently available data and models. Global and regional climate models were combined with models of crop phenology, mycotoxin prediction models, hydrodynamic models and ecological models, with the output of one model being used as input for the other. In addition, statistical data analyses using existing national datasets from the study area were performed to obtain information on the relationships between Dinophysis spp. cell counts and contamination of shellfish with diarrhetic shellfish toxins as well as on frequency of cereal cropping. In this paper, a summary of the study is presented, and overall conclusions and recommendations are given. Climate change projections for the years 2031-2050 were used as the starting point of the analyses relative to a preceding 20-year baseline period from which the climate change signal was calculated. Results showed that, in general, climate change effects lead to advanced flowering and harvest of wheat, and increased risk of contamination of wheat with deoxynivalenol. Blooms of dinoflagellates were estimated to occur more often. If the group of Dinophysis spp. behaves similarly to other flagellates in the future then frequency of harmful algal blooms of Dinophysis spp. may also increase, but consequences for contamination of shellfish with diarrhetic shellfish toxins are uncertain. Climate change will also have indirect effects on toxin contamination, which may be equally important. For example, the frequency of cropping of wheat and maize in north Europe was projected to increase under climate change, which will also increase the risk of contamination of the grains with deoxynivalenol. Risk managers are encouraged to consider the entire range of the predictions of climate change effects on food safety hazards, rather than median or average values only. Furthermore, it is recommended to closely monitor levels of mycotoxins and marine biotoxins in the future, in particular related to risky situations associated with favourable climatic conditions for toxin producing organisms. In particular, it is important to pay attention to the continuity of collecting the right data, and the availability and accessibility of databases. On a European level, it is important to stress the need for harmonisation of terminology and data collection.     

Occurrence and significance of mycotoxins in forage crops and silage: a review

Study of mycotoxins in animal feeding stuffs has concentrated on the occurrence of aflatoxins and, to a lesser extent, other mycotoxins in cereals, raw materials and concentrate feeds. However, ruminant diets contain a high proportion of forage crops such as grass or maize silage, hay and straw. Under adverse growing, production or storage conditions, fungal spoilage is likely to occur with some degree of mycotoxin contamination. The mould flora of forage crops is likely to differ significantly from that of cereals and mycotoxin contamination, should it occur, could differ qualitatively and quantitatively. Information relating to forage crops as a potential source of mycotoxins is reviewed. Some field incidents and animal disease which may be mycotoxin related are discussed and analytical methods are reviewed. Information on dose and effect of candidate mycotoxins is given where available. The review suggests areas which the authors consider merit further study. Crown Copyright 1998.     

Mycotoxin Contamination of Maize in China

China is a major cereal‐producing country and almost one third of the annual cereal yield is maize. The maize plant and kernel are prone to infection by fungal attack and are most likely to be contaminated with mycotoxins under suitable temperature and humidity conditions, during both the growing and storage period. A number of investigations conducted in China have demonstrated that maize had been infected by fungi and contaminated with mycotoxins to varying degrees. Although most of the maize produced in China is used as feed and raw materials for the chemistry industry, a small amount of maize is consumed directly by humans and the hazards of mycotoxin to humans cannot be ignored. The state of mycotoxin contamination of maize in China is analyzed in this review. Due to unfavorable weather and poor storage conditions, the high incidences of mycotoxin contamination of maize are of great concern to the Chinese. It is imperative for the national and local governments to increase investments on building large‐scale modern warehouses and instructing farmers to grow, harvest, and store maize safely. Meanwhile, due to accumulative toxic effects of mycotoxins, quality control should be enforced to guarantee that animal products are safe for human consumption.     

Development of a Quantitative Multi-Mycotoxin Method in Rice, Maize, Wheat and Peanut Using UPLC-MS/MS

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, such as Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, which are toxic to humans with high risk factors and pose a significant threat to human health. This study was focused mostly on well-known mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂), fumonisin (FB₁, FB₂), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZON), ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2, in grains. The multi-mycotoxin methods developed in this study utilise an analysis of mycotoxin through liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which can significantly improve sample analysis efficiency. The Myco6in1? immunoaffinity column was used for purification to reduce interference from the substrate. Gradient separation to obtain the best peak shift was conducted using solvent with 0.1 % formic acid in deionised water and methanol, and gradient separation was performed on an ACQUITY BEH C18 column chromatograph. The recovery rate test for each toxin using substrates such as rice, peanut, wheat and maize mostly indicated good average recovery rates between 70 % and 120 % and the coefficient of variation mostly under 15 %. The limits of quantification (LOQ) identified by this method are less than 5 ng/g in most toxins, except for 20 ng/g in FB₁and FB₂. This method can rapidly and simultaneously analyse 11 mycotoxins in 9 min. It can be applied for the practical examination of mycotoxins in food to protect public health.     

Contamination of barley seeds with Fusarium species and their toxins in Spain: an integrated approach

Fusarium is a globally distributed fungal genus that includes different species pathogenic to cereals among others crops. Some of these Fusarium species can also produce toxic compounds towards animals and humans. In this work, the presence of the most important Fusarium toxins was determined in barley seeds from Spain, sampled according to European Union requirements. The results obtained were compared with the presence of mycotoxigenic species considered responsible for their synthesis by using species-specific polymerase chain reaction protocols. Fumonisins B₁ and B₂, zearalenone, trichothecenes type A (T-2 and HT-2) and trichothecenes type B (deoxynivalenol and nivalenol) were analysed by using high-performance liquid chromatography. Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were detected in 72% and 38% of the barley samples, respectively, at levels below European Union limits in all cases. However, the co-occurrence of both toxins in 34% of the samples suggested that synergistic activity of these two mycotoxins should be evaluated. Nivalenol and HT-2/T-2 were detected at low levels in 17% and 10% of the samples, respectively. Fumonisins occurred in 34% of the samples at levels up to 300?µg/kg. This suggested that they might represent a risk in Spanish barley, and to our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence of fumonisins in barley in this country. The species-specific polymerase chain reaction assays to detect mycotoxin-producing Fusarium species showed a very consistent correlation between F. verticillioides detection and fumonisin contamination as well as F. graminearum presence and zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and nivalenol contamination in barley samples. The approach used in this study provided information of mycotoxin contamination of barley together with the identification of the fungal species responsible for their production. Detection of the species with the current polymerase chain reaction assay strategy may be considered predictive of the potential mycotoxin risk in this matrix.     

玉米中隐蔽性毒素和新型毒素污染情况分析——基于2020年中国玉米主产区采样情况（网络首发、推荐阅读）

研究2020年181个送检的玉米样品中的多种隐蔽性真菌毒素和新型毒素含量指标。通过数据分析得到送检样品中隐蔽性呕吐毒素-3-葡萄糖苷素和呕吐毒素乙酰基化合物15-乙酰基呕吐毒及3-乙酰基呕吐毒素的数据以及白僵菌素、恩镰孢素、串珠镰刀菌素、杂色曲霉毒素及链格孢毒素等新型毒素的分布情况;大部分样品未检出,有部分样品检出3-葡萄糖苷-呕吐毒素和15-乙酰基呕吐毒素为主的隐蔽性毒素,检出率分别为92.3%和64.4%。新型毒素中应关注白僵菌素和串珠镰刀菌素,少量样品检出率分别为96.69%和95.03%。     

Quantification of mycotoxins in vegetable oil by UPLC-MS/MS after magnetic solid-phase extraction

ABSTRACT

The detection of mycotoxin contamination in foodstuffs is highly significant for public health. Herein we report an analytical method based on magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) and UPLC-MS/MS for the simultaneous determination of mycotoxins, including fumonisins B₁ (FB₁), zearalenone (ZON) and ochratoxin A (OTA), in vegetable oil. Magnetic nanoparticles coated with double layers of silicon dioxide were synthesised and found to be an effective MSPE adsorbent for mycotoxins. The proposed MSPE procedure serves not only for sample clean-up but also for mycotoxin enrichment that enhances greatly the assay’s sensitivity. Under the selected MSPE conditions, linear matrix-matched calibration curves were obtained for mycotoxins in a concentration range from 0.178 to 625 μg kg^–1. The limits of detection were 0.210 μg kg^–1 for FB₁, 0.0800 μg kg^–1 for OTA and 1.03 μg kg^–1 for ZON. The proposed MSPE UPLC-MS/MS method was applied for the determination of mycotoxins in vegetable oil samples, including maize oil, rapeseed oil and soybean oil. ZON was detected in a maize oil at 101 μg kg^–1, which is below the European Union limit of 200 μg kg^–1 in foodstuffs.     

食品中黄曲霉毒素B1污染研究进展

农作物（包括玉米、小麦等）在生长、收获和储存的过程中,容易受到产毒真菌及其代谢毒物（霉菌毒 素）的污染;其加工形成的粮、油等食品及被污染饲料饲养所得的畜产品进入食物链后,易引发人类急、慢性中 毒。黄曲霉毒素B1是众多霉菌毒素中较常见且毒性较高的一种,过量摄入具有致癌、致畸形、免疫抑制等毒性效 应。本文综合国内外研究进展,从食品中黄曲霉毒素B1污染发生的来源及影响因素、黄曲霉毒素B1的分子结构与毒 性、致病机理、限量标准、风险评估及防控等方面对食品中黄曲霉毒素B1污染展开综述。     

Mycotoxins in fruits,fruit juices,and dried fruits

This review gives an overview of the presence of mycotoxins in fruits. Although several mycotoxins occur in nature, very few (aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, Alternaria toxins) are regularly found in fruits. It has been shown that the presence of fungi on fruits is not necessarily associated with mycotoxin contamination. The formation of mycotoxins depends more on endogenous and environmental factors than fungal growth does. Mycotoxins may remain in fruits even when the fungal mycelium has been removed. Depending on the fruit and the mycotoxin, the diffusion of mycotoxins into the sound tissues of fruits may occur. The influence of the selection and storage of fruits and the influence of different processing steps involved in the production of fruit juices and dried fruits on possible mycotoxin contamination is described. It is shown that the careful selection, washing, and sorting of fruits is the most important factor in the reduction of mycotoxin contamination during the production of fruit juices. The processing of fruits does not result in the complete removal of mycotoxins.     

粮食中脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇风险预警研究进展

脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇是小麦和玉米等粮食中常见的真菌毒素,受污染的粮食会严重影响人和动物健康,控制粮食产前镰刀菌感染和脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇的积累是保障粮油食品安全的重要环节。当前,世界各国都十分重视粮食真菌毒素污染风险预警工作,粮食产前脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇的污染预警研究近年来发展迅速,在脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇积累的田间影响因素研究和建立产前风险预警模型中,都取得了一定进展。本文综述了脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇风险预警的最新研究成果,旨在总结和整合现有的研究方法和成果,为开展我国粮食真菌毒素早期预警提供参考。